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Čekų patarlė (manau vertimo nereikia):

“Kdo chce s vlky býti, musí vlky výti!--If you run with the wolves, then you must howl with the wolves! Remember who your people are, keep and tell their stories to keep the fires of the culture alive!”

1. Apie dakus http://www.hungary.com/corvinus/lib/chk/chk04.pdf.

2. Dingusios tautos "Lost Peoples".

3. Pomeranijos bažnytkaimiai XVII - XVI amžiuje tarp jų ir Rugijos kaimai (nemažai baltiškų pavadinimų): http://home.germany.net/100-110994/orte.htm - A

4. Romos imperijos žlugimas http://www.san.beck.org/AB11-AugustineandRome.html - 6

5. “The Great Slavslaying”from More Light on Vitiges the Great & the Formation of the Gothic Empire

The Baltians today met the Kolotchinians in a mighty battle near Polovtsk to decide the fate of Kolotchine. The Baltians arrived first, and selected a battlefield covered with woods, hills, and a river. However, the heavily
outnumbered Kolotchinians sought an arena more suited to their knights, and retreated until they found an empty flat plain, with some hills, woods, and a river on their extreme right flank.

King Mroz was worried about being outnumbered almost 2:1, but was confident in the superior quality of his troops. King Vicas's main problem was fitting all his troops into the battlefield, and avoiding the knights.

Vicas moved first, boldly occupying the hills on his left flank with thousands of warriors. These then advanced on the woods to their front, revealing a few light infantry. Vicas hoped to move this huge body of troops through the woods and into the enemy baggage, but despite outnumbering their foes by 4:1, the woods and river slowed them down too much before they could attack.

On Vicas's left centre, King Mroz's ally, Guylas the Herul, deployed his knights and bowmen, and marched as fast as possible on the Baltian horde. The Baltian Auxilia deployed five lines deep, but was repeatedly smashed by the knights.

The Baltian guard, warbands who quickly had their opponents on the run, occupied the centre of the battle. Eventually, they tore a huge hole in the Kolotchinian centre.

On the Baltian right, auxilia and kings with their cavalry bodyguards struggled all day for advantage. King Mroz personally wiped out two Baltian units, while Baltian cavalry did terrible damage, executing many Kolotchinian auxilia. At one point, King Vicas was surrounded and in terrible peril, but managed to retreat to safety.

Guylas continued to demolish the lines and lines of doughty auxilia, who bravely charged his fast-moving knights again and again. Slowly, the knights were going down to the suicidal attacks. Baltian auxilia crossed the river and advanced behind Guylas, but were held back by Mroz’s reserve. Guylas's bowmen were dead or in full retreat.

The Baltian guard had advanced as far as the Kolotchinian's last line, when the Kolotchinian auxilia launched a ferocious attack, and destroyed half their opponents. King Vicas was unable to fill the gaps, and the warbands were soon overwhelmed. With the fate of the entire army in their hands, a two -pronged attack by superior warband on the Herulian bowmen also failed.

Guylas's knights were critically short of men, but had ridden down the second last line of Kolotchinian auxilia. The huge Kolotchinian allied command finally broke. However, the fight had been hot, and for many hours it had only required the loss of one knight or bowman to see off the Heruls. In desperation, the Vicas's ally Ringaudas charged with his cavalry against the knights, only to be speared through and routed
himself.

Seeing the entire Baltian centre in rout, the rest of the Baltian army broke, leaving the exhausted Kolotchinians cheering their hero king, and the Heruls lining up to be paid.

6. “Canonici Wissegradensis continuatio Cosmae” apie "…regis Theutonicorum Conradi conductorumque eius Wladislai ducis et episcopi Zdiconis" (1126 – 1142 originalas)

7. Cronica Ecclesiae Pragensis [Benessii Krabice De Weitmile]
Liber Primus. Incipit Cronica Ecclesie Pragensis Et Protenditur Usque Ad Tempora Domini Karoli Imperatoris. Minima pergalė prieš Prussie paganos.

8. Romos laikų žodyno ištrauka: Litana, ae, f.: Litana (forêt de la Gaule Cisalpine).

litania, ae, f. : prière. - litanias facere, Cod. Just. : prier en commun.

9. Etruskų žodyno http://web.infinito.it/utenti/e/etruscan/indice.htm fragmentas:

25/26TCET

zusleva/s tizi izei acasri pacu[sn]asie ur la iumiai zuslei iaiei tartiriiai fanusei pep iai [TLE : tartiriiai]

zusleva stizaitei acasri pacus[nasi]e ur la iumia[i zusle]i [ ]iaiei t[ar] tiriiai fanusei pep iai

zusleva stizai tei acasri pacus[n]asie ur la iumiai zuslei iaiei tar tiriiai fanusei pep iai

26/27TCET

ra/tu ceiniai tei turza esa ce e [-------

ra/tu ce iniaitei turza esa ce e [-------

ra/tu ceiniai tei turza esa ce e [-------

10. Teutonų (Kryžiuočių) riterių juokeliai:

The Sense of Humoramong theTeutonic Knightsof theThirteenth Century:

We seek to understand our ancestors by studying their thought through political documents, religious treatises, and literature as much as by examining the physical remnants of their civilization and reading accounts of their deeds. An important but neglected aspect of thought is humor.

Certain aspects of medieval humor are well-known, thanks to the perennial popularity of Boccaccio and Chaucer, but these authors are generally considered to be exceptions to a rather dull and stuffy age; and, while specialists can point to numerous other authors who knew how to turn an elegant phrase of recount memorable anecdote, most would agree that some members of medieval society seem more notable for their lack of humor than for an excess of it. One of the least humorous groups was the crusading order, a body of knights devoted to poverty, chastity, obedience, and war against infidels and pagans. This, indeed, was the attitude which the Church sought to inculcate among these warriors--singleminded devotion to God and duty--and the success it attained is shown by the contemporary reputation the orders had among both its allies and its enemies.

The crusading orders were renowned for their terrible fervor and their contempt of death, but also for their mutual jealousy, great ambition, and avarice. Consequently, every accusation cast at them found an audience willing to believe the most exaggerated charges; and when the orders fell upon evil times, Christian monarchs confiscated their lands and sent the crusader monks to the stake with the same feeling of justification held by those Moslem princes who beheaded the prisoners who came into their power. Perhaps few organizations can be suspected of having as small a sense of humor as did the crusading orders; and, of all the crusading orders, none would be less credited with a comic sense than the Teutonic Knights, whose already impressive reputation for coldness and austerity was enhanced by subsequent generations of professional soldiers in Prussian service. Yet, as we shall see, the Teutonic Knights did have a sense of humor.

The surviving documents do not lend themselves easily to investigation of this personality trait: state papers do not often contain jokes; three of the four chronicles (Peter of Dusburg, Nicholaus of Jeroschin, and the Rhymned Chronicle of Livonia) were composed as Tischrede, edifying historical works to be read to the assembled knights during meals; the other chronicle (Henry of Livonia) was a report drawn up to inform a papal legate about the history of the crusade in the north; and hearings by papal officials were intended to reconcile disputes among the contentious political and religious groups in the Baltic.¹⁾ It would be possible to amass more examples of humor by extending the research into the 14^th Century, but the Teutonic Knights made a decisive break with their past as that century began. Forced out of the Holy Land, they concentrated their energies upon the crusade in Prussia and Livonia, where they fought Christian Poles as enthusiastically as they did pagan Lithuanians and "schismatic" Russians. And, at the same time, European society was becoming more sophisticated and worldly-wise, so that the recruits brought with them rather different attitudes than were prevalent in the 13^th Century.

Surviving materials are voluminous by definition, filling a small shelf with histories, letters, and reports in Latin, middle high German, and middle low German. But most of these are strictly of a political, military, or economic nature, and its priestly authors so as to avoid scandal or any possibility of encouraging the readers and listeners to improper activity censor the remainder.

In this way, mention of the subject of sex was extremely rare (the authors being fearful that the knightly monks might take their vows lightly), and the two examples found in Nicholas of Jeroschin might be more typical of the mid-14th Century than the 13^th, so that we would omit them if other stories were available; but no other tales exist, and indubitably these two stores were passed down from earlier times. The first anecdote describes a raid upon a Lithuanian wedding party; after the handful of Christian warriors had disposed of the drunken guests they crept up to the bridal chamber "and then they awakened the bridegroom roughly and also the bride with screams, interrupting the honeymoon." The author then added an aside, "I swear, though, if it had been up to me, they could have slept on as they wished to; but it wasn't, so they had to get up."⁽²⁾ The second anecdote concerned commander Bruhaven of the Konigsberg garrison, who as a youth wanted to join the Teutonic Order but had doubts that he could keep the vow of chastity. Accordingly, "he took a maid, young, pretty, and clean, who not equalled by anyone in the neighborhood for bodily beauty. And he lay all night in bed next to herl And Bruhaven kept this up for a full year and then took an oath and gave proof that he had never deflowered her."⁽³⁾

This story was probably accepted in the same spirit that the knights would have read Ripley's "Believe It or Not." The warriors were a jolly group, famous for their meals and entertainment, and the secular atmosphere, the political gossip, and the jokes were such a hindrance to good religious discipline that the Virgin Mary once appeared to a knight to complain about his companion's conduct. That they would have allowed the preceeding tale to pass without comment strains credulity.

The most common type of story (and the one most approaching a joke) concerned pratfalls and misadventures in war. The knights were particularly sensitive about teeth. The crusaders who ran a naval blockade on the Vistula River huddled on the decks under a heavy missile fire, but the only casualty mentioned was that the Prussians "knocked a tooth out of brother Conrad."⁽⁴⁾ In that combat against the Semgallians led by King Vester, "Brother Marquart was watching for him and charged toward him as soon as he saw him. He was born in Barbach and was a good knight. He guarded his honor well and many men praised him. May his soul be happy! But his horse carried him too wide and Vester knocked out I don't know how many teeth! Then he escaped into the castle. Brother Marquart was not very happy that he had gotten away."⁽⁵⁾ Similarly, they liked to ridicule pretension:

There was a certain knight among the vassals of Swantopolk who so disliked the Teutonic Knights that he expressed his contempt whenever he heard their name mentioned. And it happened one time that the duke was relaxing in a certain village and had called some of his knights to him for fun and said, "Let's send a servant to the fields and after a while have him come back and say that the Teutonic Knights are comingwith an army, and let's see how cowardly this knight proves to be." They liked the idea and sent a messenger to carry out the business. The Teutonic Knights, as it happened, were coming along not far from the village, and when the messenger went out and saw the brothers coming with their warriors, he was stupified and made pale with fear, and with great shouts and a drawn sword he returned to Swantopolk and said, "get up fast and escape, because the Teutonic Knights are coming with an army." Those who knew what was happening smiled, but the cowardly knight, hearing the name of the Teutonic Knights, jumped up from the table and fled. But the messenger kept repeating his first words earnestly and swearing with oaths that the Teutonic Knights were nearby with an army. And the duke left the others smiling with one companion, who was killed by a knight who followed them to a certain stream, where he could not catch the duke, but the other knights were captured and killed.⁽⁶⁾

This tendency to moralize may tell us more about the priestly chroniclers than about the knights themselves. We may suspect that the warriors like a good story for its own sake, because examples such as the following abound:

In this battle a certain brother Gerhard, a Saxon, was chasing the fleeing Prussians and cut off the head of one with a sword, but the wounded man did not fall to the earth immediately but an on without his head after the others for a good distance and then died. The knights who saw this were all astounded and said that they had never seen the like.⁽⁷⁾

Some of these stories have an ancient and honorable lineage. The monk of St. Gall would recognize the conversation between Ottokar of Bohemia and a Prussian nobleman:

The King of Bohemia led his army to the castle Balga, where he met through the brothers a certain old man named Gedune... who knew everything about the military capabilities of the Samlanders. And the King asked him when he saw the first unit of the army if it was strong enough to succeed, and he answered no. Then the second unit came, twice as strong, and after seeing it he responded as before. When the third unit came, three times as strong, he said that it was sufficient. Then came the rest of the army, which covered the ice like locusts cover the ground, and when the King asked if such an army could act in Samland, he answered, "It is sufficient to go anywhere you wish."⁽⁸⁾

All the skills of the storyteller were invoked to interest the knightly audience that listened to the reading of the history of the order. Consequently, the authors interspersed witty remarks through the text, remarks that probably reflect the wit used in everyday conversation. Phrases such as "to make widows and orphans,"⁽⁹⁾ "to tear this crane's nest into little pieces,"⁽¹⁰⁾ and "he killed enough of the nobles of the land"⁽¹¹⁾ are found commonly. Puns were used now and then.

The knights appreciated boorish ignorance of the social graces: "Some of them were so impolite, that they had to lay down and stretch out their feet toward the castle when death broke their hearts."¹² And they were conscious of their duties as hosts: "Nearby us dwelt some evil guests,"¹³ and "Death had overburdened us with these guests who want to harm us. We want to plunk out their feathers in several places."¹⁴Conversations were imagined:

When Mindaugas came to Wenden and heard that the Russians had led him onto thin ice (that is to say, they had left him to devastate the land with fire and sword by himself), he said, "Traniate, tell me, you evil man and absolute coward, now that the Russians had betrayed me and now that you have turned the Master into my enemy, what advice can you give me?¹⁵

Another theme that runs through humurous remarks is money: The pagans "pushed forward to the storm enthustiastically and advanced on the castle. But some had gotten up too early that morning and had to leave as pawn the body that they had brought there."¹⁶ Indeed, their contempt of the money-grubbing merchants brought the knights into conflict with Riga. The citizens protested the destruction of a bridge over the Dvina River, saying that it had cost one hundred Marks to build, whereupon the local convent officer had responded, "What are a hundred Marks to you?"¹⁷

When the citizens threatened to fight over the issue, the officer responded further, "Who you? You would resist us? We would rather die at your hands than succumb to the pagans!"¹⁸

In a similar manner the knights mocked the secular priests. At the siege of Dorpat, the crusader monks advanced into battle while the priests fled into shelter: "The Russian army was very large, and the bishop feared them and he ordered the army to the castle. The priests (pfaffen) feared death greatly, as is their ancient tradition and their present custom."¹⁹

The numerous references to pagans are characterized by a fascination with their simplicity and naivete. A Samland noble who visited Balga to see whether the knights were made of flesh and bone or were a new type of metalic monster was reported to have told his fellow countrymen that, "they ate grass like horses. Who can withstand people who can sustain themselves in the wilderness and eat grass for food?"²⁰ The knights had probably been eating cabbage that day. No doubt this raised merry comments from the listeners about the quality of the diet they were consuming.

Nicknames were given to individuals. Master Hartmann of Grunbach, for example, called Watmal from the poor quality cloak he tried to force the knights to wear.²¹

In all the examples that can be cited, however, the belly laugh remains absent. The closest any author came was a description of the pagans who attacked Königsberg:

It happened that the Samlanders with their attacking army so overwhelmed the castle that one brother among those who were stationed on defense had to abandon his already-strungcrossbow and narrowly escape. Then one of the Samlanders hung the crossbow around his neck. The others standing around admired this greatly because they had not seen anything like it before, and, touching it in diverse places with their hands, one depressed the trigger; and the bowstring cut his throat so that he died shortly afterward. From this the Prussians feared crossbows very much.²²

The knights, however, had their own appreciation of remarks we might consider simply bad taste. One gibe that was repeated often was first made during a confrontation at Dünamünde when a monk threatened to appeal to the Pope for help against the crusaders' oppression; a Teutonic Knight responded that they already had a Pope among them, and when the monk asked where he was, the knight pulled out his weapon and said, "the sword is our Pope and it is never far from you."²³ This statement damned the reputation of the crusading order for all subsequent generations, being repeated by enemies as proof that the order was nothing more than a pack of land-hungry, irreligious troublemakers; and the knights repeated it, too, apparently persuaded that it was a great joke.

Unfortunately, the era did not encourage comedy. The Teutonic Knights were fighting for survival both in Livonia and Prussia, and they lost the fight in the Holy Land. Threatened by pagan armies, episcopal ambitions, a renewed Polish national feeling, papal hostility, and warned by the fate of the Templars that they, too, might be destroyed, the crusaders developed a cynical outlook on life that reinforced the already dour atmosphere that permeated the bleak convent life of isolated castles on a cold and distant frontier. That their humor was ironic and heavy is understandable.

The knights were not witty or greatly imaginative, if the few (and perhaps untypical) examples are to be believed. They appreciated the method of storytelling more than the story, so that the style of the delivery was as important as the tale; and they liked puns--facts difficult to appreciate in English. But the characteristics of this humor are so in keeping with those found elsewhere at this time that we may feel assured that we are not mistaking the stylistic genius of the few authors for the peculiar qualities of the group. Although the subject matter does not lend itself well to analysis (Who would ever suspect Henry Kissinger of having a keen wit from reading his official reports or a history of his diplomatic activities?), but it does provide us with occasional glimpses of the personalities hidden behind the iron helmets and cloister walls. Anyone associated with sports or the military will recognize the humor of Teutonic Knights: their locker-room jokes have been subjected to an intense censorship that suppressed references to sex and excrement; eliminate these from the rather limited vocabularies of any all-male group and what remains is the humor of the crusading orders.

What are the key words and symbols associated with their humor? What unlocks their subconscious for us, so that briefly, so very briefly, we may look into their minds and souls? First is duty. Theirs was a very special service, one threatened by priestly moralisms, episcopal avarice, and bodily temptation. Their humor was pointed at these targets, either lightly or with heavy sarcasm, depending on the degree that these threatened the goals of the order. Bodily temptation was not a great problem, and therefore was dealt with lightly, but priests and bishops who attempted to force the knights to obey them were deadly enemies, enemies of the duty the owed the Church and the Empire, the Pope and the Emperor. Under duty are marshalled the concepts of honor, courage, and military skill. Second comes nobility, which was only barely a fit subject for joking. The jibes about base-born individuals or burghers make it clear that the knight had few things to be proud of in their semi-cloistered world; and their birth was one of their highest objects of pride. Consequently, they despised the pursuit of money or trade, and they respected their noble pagan enemies. Third come pride, particularly pride in appearance and bodily beauty. The loss of a tooth was a painful experience that most of the knights must have known. The humor came int he knowledge of the frustration and embarassment that such a minor injury brought. Fourth comes a morbid fascination with death that was approached ironically. All the various ways of becoming a corpse are mentioned in the chronicles, and the demise of countless numbers of enemies is recorded joyfully, and, in a subtle way, almost humorously. Lastly, there were the vicissitudes of life in the convent--poor food, the burden of chastity, the cold--that the knights faced relatively cheerfully. Perhaps that is a commentary on the low level of comfort in the 13^th Century. Not even nobles had a varied diet or warm rooms, and the knights lived fairly well by contemporary standards. They hunted and fished, hawked and traveled much like other lords, and their business of government and war kept them occupied more than was the case of many secular lords.

In short, what does the humor of the Teutonic Knights tell us about the ideals and practices of the membership, in contrast to what is told about the elite leadership by the treaties and documents? It says that duty, nobility, pride, and death were the subjects of greatest concern--approximately what the order stated its objects were. Larger questions of life, of philosophy, of theology are conspicuously absent, as are references to major political figures, contemporary personalities, and events. Perhaps these larger questions, which form an important part of the modern intellectual's concept of what is funny, were present but simply not recorded. Perhaps, but not likely. The sample of humor, limited though it is, is sufficient to form a consistent picture of 13^thCentury noble humor--local, earthy, ironic--filtered through a deeply felt commitment to poverty, chastity, and obedience.

The traditional view of the crusading order is upheld--their fervor and concept of death remains, as does their jealousy, ambition, and avarice--but no longer should one see the knights as unsmiling.

NOTES

1 Petri de Dusburg's "Chronicon terrae Prussiae" and Nicolaus von Jeroschin's "Die Kronike von Pruzinlant" are in volume one of Scriptores rerum Prussicarum (Leipzig, 1861; reprint Frankfurt/Main: Minerva, 1965); Heinrici Chonicon Livoniae (2^nd edition. Hannover: Hahnsche, 1955) is available in English translation by James Brundage, The Chronicle of Henry of Livonia (Madison: U. of Wisconsin Press, 1961); Livländische Reimchronik (Paderborn, 1876; reprint Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1963), is available in English translation, The Livonian Rhymed Chronicle (trans. Jerry C. Smith and William Urban, Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1977); volumes one, two, three, and six of Liv-, Est-, und Curländisches Urkundenbuch (12 vols. Reval, Riga, and Moscow: Kluge and Strohm, Kymmel, and Deuber, 1853-1914) and volume one, parts one and two of Preussisches Urkundenbuch (Königsberg: Hartung, 1882 and 1909) contain most of the printed documents; and Das Zeugenverhör des Franciscus de Moliano (1312) (Königsberg: Thomas und Oppermann, 1912) is the most important papal investigation of this era. 2 Jeroschin, p. 519. 3 Ibid., p. 524. 4 Ibid., p. 423; Dusburg, p. 95. 5 Dusburg, p. 79 6 Reimchronik, p. 41. 7 Dusburg, pp. 78-9. 8 Ibid., pp. 106-107. 9 Ibid., p. 91. 10. Reimchronik, p. 90. 11 Ibid., pp. 86-87. 12 Jeroschin, p. 539. 13 Reimchronik, pp. 230-231. 14 Ibid., p. 87. 15 Ibid., p. 126. 16 Ibid., p. 149. 17 Ibid., p. 89. 18 Liv-, Est-, und Curlandisches Urkundenbuch, I, p. 567. 19 Ibid., p. 710 20 Reimchronik, p. 152. 21 Jeroschin, p. 416. 22 Dusburg, p. 95. 23 Ibid., p. 107. 24 Zeugenverhör, p. 51; also Liv-, Est-, und Curländisches Urkendenbuch,I, p. 747.

This publication is available in Microform. For complete information please write to: Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Mich. 48106 Xerox University Microfilms 35 Mobile Drive Toronto, Ontario, Canada M4A 1H6 University Microfilms Limited St. John's Road Tyler's Green, Penn. Buckinghamshire, England

11. Pliny the Elder's Natural History (LacusCurtius) fragmentas:

Non alienum videtur hoc loco subicere inscriptionem e tropaeo Alpium, quae talis est:
IMP · CAESARI DIVI FILIO AVG · PONT · MAX · IMP · XIIII · TR · POT · XVII · S · P · Q · R · QVOD EIVS DVCTV AVSPICIISQVE GENTES ALPINAE OMNES QVAE A MARI SVPERO AD INFERVM PERTINEBANT SVB IMPERIVM P · R · SVNT REDACTAE · GENTES ALPINAE DEVICTAE TRVMPILINI · CAMVNNI · VENOSTES · 137 VENNONETES · ISARCI · BREVNI · GENAVNES · FOCVNATES · VINDELICORVM GENTES QVATTVOR · COSVANETES · RVCINATES · LICATES · CATENATES · AMBISONTES · RVGVSCI · SVANETES · CALVCONES · BRIXENETES · LEPONTI · VBERI · NANTVATES · SEDVNI · VARAGRI · SALASSI · ACITAVONES · MEDVLLI · VCENNI · CATVRIGES · BRIGIANI · SOGIONTI · BRODIONTI · NEMALONI · EDENATES · VESVBIANI · VEAMINI · GALLITAE · TRIVLLATI · ECDINI · VERGVNNI · EGVI · TVRI · NEMATVRI · ORATELLI · NERVSI · VELAVNI · SVETRI.

12. [MONACHI SAZAVIENSIS CONTINUATIO COSMAE] De chronica sancti Iheronimi et compositione annorum, fragmentas:

Isto anno venerunt legati Rusciae gentis, ad regem Ottonem, et deprecati sunt eum, ut aliquem suorum episcoporum transmitteret, qui eis ostenderet viam veritatis, et professi sunt, se velle recedere a paganico ritu et accipere nomen et religionem christianitatis. Et ille consensit petitioni eorum, et transmisit Adalbertum episcopum in fide catholicum. Illi per omnia mentiti sunt, sicut postea eventus rei probavit, quia ille praedictus episcopus non evasit letale periculum ab insidiis illorum.

13. Victims Of The Baltic Crusade William L. Urban

14. Kryžiuočių Ordino Regula (Teutonic Knights), išversta anglų kalbon Prof. Indrikis Sterns.

15. Petri Zittaviensis Cronica Aule Regie
Incipit prefacio in opus subsequens. Fragmentas:

Vidimus nempe non solum de Italie, Francie tociusque Germanie partibus universis, sed nunc de Russia, nunc de Prussia, nunc de Grecia et nonnunquam de ultimis Ungarorum et de maritimis finibus ad hunc famosum regem confluere religiosos et eciam clericos plurimos seculares, quorum quidam barbam, alii comam more barbarico nutrientes suo ritu in greco, quandoque eciam in slauico idiomate celebrarunt missarum solempnia sepius coram rege, quorum plurimi discrecionis habentes spiritum consideratis domo et familia huius regis et ordine mensarum et ciborum vasorumque eius ultra vix habebant spiritum, sed veraciter cum regina Saba, que audire et videre sapienciam Salomonis venerat, non sub fuco adulacionis, sed ammiracionis animo regi multociens hec dixerunt: Maior est gloria tua fama, quam de te in terris nostris audivimus, et superat rumoris amplitudinem tue sapiencie et potencie magnitudo.

16. Ibn Fadlan's Account of the Rus (Rus’u aprašymas verstas iš arabų anglų kalbon)

17. Sarmatian Tribes:

Please note that those positions with pictures are currently player-character positions.

Iazyges (Jotvingiai A.C.) : Sarmatian tribe who have recently arrived in the area and are settled on the east bank of the Danube and have as their capital the former Boii town of Aquinicum. Their army is Celtic barbarian in nature, and mostly light infantry

Bastarnae: A Sarmantian tribe whose capital is the former Greek colony of Olbia on the north-west coast of the Euxine Sea. Ruled by King Idanythyrsus.

Roxolanii: A Sarmantian tribe whose capital is the former Greek colony of Tyras on the west coast of the Euxine Sea as well as the small town of Tomis further south. Ruled by Decebalus and his brother Duras. They have a heavy reliance on well armoured heavy cavalry. Tomis has been attacked by their southern neighbour Thrace.

Cimmeria: Located on the northern shore of the Euxine Sea and bordered to the north by various Sarmantian tribes. Ruled by Machares of Pontus, the 45 year old son of Mithradates VI the Great King of Pontus and scourge of the Romans, by his marriage to his elder sister Laodice of Pontus. When King Paerisides V of Cimmeria died in 109 BC, Mithradates of Pontus invaded Cimmeria and by 106 BC had conquered the country (calling it the Kingdom of Bosphorus). His daughter and heiress Gepaepyris was taken hostage and bought to Pontus. Machares was later married to Gapaepyris of Cimmeria and sent north as viceroy to restore order, where the inhabitants had rebelled against Pontus. Machares reigned efficiently and well for 19 years in Cimmeria allying himself with the Romans against his father. In 66 the Roman attacked Mithradates and quickly defeated him. Mithradtes retreated around the eastern end of the Euxine Sea, attacking and taking Phanagoria. Machares and his brother plotted to overthrow their father and succeeded, with Pharances taking Pontus and Machares remaining in Cimmeria. The Cimmerian army has strong Scythian and Sarmatian influences with about 20,000 cavalryand 10,000 infantry present.

Maeotae: The remnants of a great race the Scythians, the Moeotae have been driven to this area by a new nation/race the Sarmatians over the last three hundred years. With their capital at Uspe, their land is located north of Iberia, between the Hyrcanian Sea to the east and the Euxine Sea to the west. The Maeotae are ruled by their king Saumacus.

Iberia: Ruled by King Artog, Iberia is a mountainous country in the wilds of the Caucasus mountains. Filled with barbarian tribesmen, it is believed Iberia can field a large army of between 20,000-30,000 warriors. These tribesmen are fiercely independent and fight well from the mountain stronghold.

Alani: Also known as the Alans. This is a nomadic Sarmantian tribe that live on the steppes north of the Euxine Sea and the Hyrcanian Sea (Baltijos).

18. Apie Gerulius angliškai http://www.geocities.com/troels_brandt/heruleng.html#C1

19. Rusų kiltis pagal skandinavus http://www.hf.uio.no/east/Medd/PDF/Medd77.pdf.

20. Etruskų raudų fragmentai http://web.infinito.it/utenti/e/etruscan/indice.htm:

LIBER LINTEUS ZAGRABIENSIS

colonna IX

1 zu leve · zarve · ecn · zeri · lecin · in · zec

2 fler · ezince · acnicstre · cil

3 pure tre · ena · e rse · tin i · tiurim

4 avil · i · cisum · pute · tul · ans · ha e

5 repinec · acnicleri · cil l · pureri

6 me lumeric · ena · ra · tul · he

7 vinum · trin · flere · ne un l · un · mla

8 nun en · zu leve · zarve · fa eic · ecn · zeri [ScrE : zarva ; ET : zarve]

9 lecin · in · zec · fler · ezinc[e · ]acnic tre

10 cil · purestre · ena [ · e ]rse · tin i

11 tiurim · avil · i · cisu[m · pute · t]ul · ans

12 ha ec · repinec · acnicleri · cil l · pureri

13 me lumeric · ena · ra · suu · nun enn

14 zusleve · fafa eic · far an · fleres · nene unsl

15 ra · cletram · rencve · nun en

16 estrei · alazei · zusleve · ra · eim · tul · var

17 nun en · estrei · alazei · tei · fa i · eim

18 tul · var · celi · su · nun en · flere · ne unsl

19 un · mla· nun en · i · esvi c · fa ei

20 cisum · pute · tul · ans · ha ec · repinec

21 acnicleri · cil l · pureri · me lumeric

22 ena · in · v · i · n · u · m · flere · ne unsl · i

23 [esvi c · fa ei · -----------------------------] [ET, DE]

[5 desunt]

y1 nacum · aisna · hin u · vinum · trau · prucuna

[3 vacant]

y2 ciem · cealu · lauumneti · eisna · a e/ri

y3 tura ra ---------------------------------- [ET : tur-------]

[4-5 desunt]

II dalis mano archyvo: » Sugrįžti į pradžią

1. Herodotas apie Skitija ir kalbas

2. HUNAI

3. Etrusku kalba:

Mezu nemunius, vemetuvis, akiu, percnaz, mi prknš, kailes, velu[,mene, kutvalu , kraiu, uriu, titi, titinai,

Dievu vardai: e au va tinia menerva turan ziumi e, alna atunis avizr, pultuke amuke kastur, veltune, :ziumi e: , mari halna, pultuke, tetie, aivas telmuns, pakste,

latva tuntle turms

pantasila zimaite

4. Zemiau rasite apie Asia Minor (Mazoji Azija). Hetitus. IONIAN, LYCIAN, LYDIAN, PHRYGIAN, TROJAN. Caanan. Mongolu chanus. Vandalu karalius. Orteliaus zemelapiu (Ortelius Map No.) Nr. 155 156 158 pilnus aprasymus apie Prusija, Lietuva, Lenkija, Livonija, Vandalija bei kitus kaimyninius regionus.

ASIA MINOR (Mazoji Azija ir jos tautos)

When Hittites and Luwians arrived in Central Anatolia around 2,100 BC after crossing the Caucasian Mountains,

(nudienos Ukraine, Russia or Turkistan) they found the native Hatti already settled there. The central figure of a bull stag framed with symbols and decorated with discs was the sign of Hatti hegemony. A palace belonging to king WARSHAMA was found at Kültepe, located near Kayseri.

LUWIANS and Hittites arrived in East Asia Minor ca 2100 BC, Luwians settling in southern and eastern lands of Anatolia. "They came from the East, maybe from the Caucasus, though there are opinions about their living in Greece earlier." Eventually, they migrated south to SYRIA and west, to lands later known as LYCIA. First Luwian (aka Luvian or Luish) documents refer to the 16th century BC. Luwian was used together with (Nessian) Hittite in the capital city of Hattusa, many Luwian documents were found in Royal libraries there. In the 13th century Luwian influenced the official Hittite language of the Empire. Luwian language was mainly spoken in the country ARZAWA, west of Hatti, and in CILICIA, south of Hatti, central province of the Empire The culmination of Luwian language development took place in the 13 - 12th centuries BC, when most of inscriptions were written. (Sea People Invasion) In the 11th century, Luwian disappeared in the West. It began to retreat under the pressure of Aramaeans and Assyrians who invaded Hittite lands from the South and East. Hieroglyphic Luwian was used in city-states of Southern Anatolia and Northern Syria, from 1000 - 700 BC. Luwian sources disappear in the East, in the 7th century BC. Hatti Luwian was assimilated by Aramaic.

HITTITE - NESIAN HITTITE (called themselves NESIAN)

and Luwians settle in Asia Minor ca 2100 BC. Hittites aka Hatti (cuneiform), Khuti, Kheta (Egyptian) or Hittim (bible), occupied central lands of Anatolia, Palaic tribes lived northwards around the city of PALA, and Luwians preferred southern and eastern lands. The earliest record is in the reign of Saamsu-ditana, last king of the first Babylonian Dynasty, ca 2000 BC, when Hittites marched on the land of Akkadia. From ca 2000 BC, this population is partly Semitic and Mongolic; the same race represented by Hittite records in Cappadocia and Pontus. Archaeological finds occurred near Ibreez, (pka Lycaonia), followed by others along the ORONTES at Hamah (Hamath). Long designated "Hamathite writing", texts of Hittite origin were discovered at Aleppo, Jerabûls, Ninive, Ghiaur-ka-lessi, Boghaz-Keui, Mount Sipylus, the Pass of Karabel. When figures accompanied inscriptions, all were clad in a tunic reaching to the knees, shod with boots with turned-up ends, and wore a high peaked cap. The true home of the Hittite monuments extends from the EUPHRATES to the HALYS River; monuments beyond these limits either mark the site of eccentric colonies, or are memorials of military conquests. "The high plateau of Cappadocia might be regarded as their primeval home." (Geography: Halys river, Cappadocia, Taurus Mts, Carchemish on the Euphrates boundry of Mesopotamia, about 150 miles between Halys and Carchemish.) At an early date some tribes forced their way through the Taurus Mts into Northern Syria and established themselves in the valley of the Orontes: Hamath and Cades (Kadesh) were early Hittite cities. Some bands, pursuing their march southwards, settled in the hilly region of Southern Palestine, where they intermingled with AMORITES, then in possession of the land. Amorites in Canaan 2300 - 1900 BC. ("mother of Jerusalem was a Hittite, father of Jerusalem an Amorite") The bulk of the nation established itself in Naharina, between two foremost empires of the ancient world, Chaldee and Egypt, making Hitttite territory one of the richest commercial countries in the East. Egyptian records witness military conquests of the Hitttite in distant regions of Western and Southern Asia Minor. Some traditions lingering on in those regions centuries later (origin of the Lydian dynasty) originated in Hitttite conquests. Egyptian and Assyrian documents detail some Hitttite history.

FOUR KINGS AGAINST FIVE TUDHALISH 1, ca 1750. THADAL, aka Tidal, Tudhalya, Tudhaliya, Thudhula, Tudhalish, sâr mâtâti (Sarmatian?) "king of foreign countries," king of Goiim (Hebr. Gôyîm "nations, confederation.") FYI: kings names are listed with or without suffix "sh."

During the 18th century BC, PITHANA was the first king of this era. While Hittites were still a small principality, they took control of Hattushash under the command of ANITTA-SH. By securing sovereignty among the other principalities, Hittites established a state. After Anittash, came TUDHALI-SH I (ca 1750 BC), PUSHARUMMA-SH, followed by King LABARNA-SH (1680-1650 BC.) When Labarnash died, he was succeeded by HATTUSHILI-SH I, and during his reign the boundaries of the Hittites extended as far as Aleppo. Hattushilish bequeathed his kingdom to grandson MURSHILI-SH I, disinheriting his own eldest son, HUZZIHA-SH. Murshilish I, king in 1660 BC, captured Babylon by defeating King Shamsu-Ditana and extended Hittite boundaries to include Syria as well. However, a revolt in Hattushash while he was in Syria, eventually ended with his dethronement. He recovered the throne from HANTILI-SH, who had overthrown him together with ZIDANTA-SH I and he was killed by his son AMMUNHA-SH. During this period, famine was rampant and there were several revolts. Luwian Arzawa, Adanuya and Shalappa were the first to revolt, joined by the Kingdom of Kizzuwatna, with whom Hittites were forced to sign a treaty on equal terms. Northern Syria fell under Mitanni (Hurrian) domination, while the state continued to diminish in power and began to shrink. Continuous struggles for the throne lingered on until Shuppilulima came to power in 1375 BC thus putting an end to the struggles for supremacy that had begun in 1590 BC.

Hittites appear in Egyptian records 1550 BC. HUZZIYA I was followed by TELIPINU-SH (1535-1510 BC) also tried to put an end to conflicts over succession, issuing his famous proclamation, the Telipinush Decree. After his reign the entire ancient Near East was engulfed in a period of darkness until 1450 BC. (Sodom & Gomorah, fire & brimstone, volcanic eruption?) During this period, the area was inundated by new influxes of migrating tribes, of which we have little information. (SEA PEOPLE INVASION 1.) The reign of Telipinush was followed by several brief reigns in succession. These were the reigns of TAHURWAIL, ALLUWAMNA-SH, HANTILI-SH II, ZIDANTA-SH II, and HUZZIHA-SH II. After the reign of Huzzihash II, TUDHALIYA-SH III sat on the Hittite throne and became founder of the great Hittite Kingdom. This ruler campaigned against Syria, Kizzuwatna, Kargamysh and Halpa and brought them back into the Hittite realm.

EGYPTIAN RECORDS CA 1480 - 1150 BC. Aziru the AMORITE, subject to Amenophis III, submitted to a great Hittite ruler and conquered the whole of Phoenicia down to Tyre. (Amenophis III ca 1480 BC; Thothmes III, in his twenty-third year ca 1458 BC.) Hittites enterprises forced Assyrian king Ramman-Nirari to invoke the aid of Thothmes IV against Hittites of MER'ASH; the first Egyptian campaign was directed against the Khetas. Hittites, with their allies the MINNI, AMURRU, KASI, and the King of ZINZAR, did not cease to press southwards, thereby causing serious alarm to the Egyptian governors. (AMENHOTEP III, aka Akhenaten, reign 1402-1364 BC. AMENHOTEP IV, aka Akhenaten, reign 1350-1334 at Thebes.) Once allied with a shared border, Hittites became enemies of Egypt after the weak reign of Akhenaten. Hitttites resumed the offensive during the reign of Amenhotep IV 1350-1334 BC. They were led by ETAQQAMA, son of SUTARNA, Prince of Cades (Kadesh), who had formerly warred against them. Before Etaqqama, Teuwaatti, Arzawyia, and Dasa, Syrian cities and Egyptian strongholds fell, and Cades on the Orontes became for centuries a strong centre of Hitttite power. (contradiction: Hittites rule Cades, Amorites rule Cades. Hittites ally with Cades, Hittites conquer Cades.) Horemheb ruled 1336-1306 BC, died without heir, named RAMSES I as Pharoah. Egyptian Ay (it-netjer) 1323-1319 BC, throne name Kheperkheperu-re. Death of a Hittite crown prince between the reigns of Tutankhamun and Ay, murdered on Egyptian soil, resulted in a cold war between Egypt and the Hittites. Soon after RAMSES I 1306-? was buried, new Pharaoh SETI had trouble on his hands. A series of wars erupt, triggered by the advances of neighboring peoples on the Egyptian Nile Delta, encouraged by weak and short reign of Ramses I. The Shasu BEDOUIN (Bedawi) were threatening north eastern trade routes. Seti had to repell these people and secure Egyptian borders to the North, while maintaining and expanding his territory in the south and east. Only vast expanses of the Western Desert, "land of the dead" (Sahara), held no approaching enemies. Six battle paintings are ranged in a series on the outer wall of the north side the Great Hall. On each of the many pillars, hieroglyphs describe Seti's campaign to repulse the intruders. A war in the east begins in the first year of Seti's reign. Seti raised an army and marched North, to the Temple on Mount Casius, past the current boundary of Egypt and deep into the land of the PHILISTINES. "In the first year of King Seti there took place the annihilation of hostile SHASU, from the fortress of KHETAM of the land of ZARU, as far as KANAAN." The Shasu next are routed in PHOENICIAN territory. Seti is shown fighting the next enemy, the RUTENNU of Canaan: (Rutennu related to Ruthen?) "HITTITE AMBUSH, Egyptian records dated 1294 BC." RAMESIS II (13th c. BC) "Then his majesty was in Ramses Meri-Amon, the town in the Valley of the Cedar. His majesty proceeded northward. After his majesty reached the mountain range of Kadesh, then his majesty went forward like his father Montu, Lord of Thebes, and he crossed the ford of the Orontes, with the first division of AMON. His majesty reached the town of Kadesh. Now the wretched foe belonging to HATTI, with the numerous foreign countries which were with him, was waiting hidden and ready on the northeast of the town of Kadesh, while his majesty was alone by himself with his retinue. The division of Amon was on the march behind him; the division of RE was crossing the ford in a district south of the town of Shabtuna, at the distance of one iter from the place where his majesty was ; the division of PTAH was on the south of the town of Arnaim; and the division of SETH was marching on the road. His majesty had formed the first ranks of battle of all the leaders of his army, while they were on the shore in the land of AMURRU. His majesty was in Djahi on his second victorious campaign; on the mountain range south of Kadesh; The lord proceeded northward, and his majesty arrived at a vicinity south of the town of Shabtuna." Rameses II employed mercenaries called SHAIRTANAU from Asia Minor.

After King Tudhaliyash II, ARNUWANDA-SH I came to power while his wife Queen ASMUNIKAL managed the throne (1440-1420 BC.) This was followed by HATTUSILI II (1420-1400 BC) taking over the throne and who was followed by TUDHALIYA III (1400-1380 BC). This ruler protected the benefits of the Hittites against the Aleppo kingdom (Egyptian) in the Southeast, the Kasga Kingdom in the north and Arzova Kingdom in the south. However due to his illness, he sent his son Shuppiluliuma I as commander of the expeditions. Despite SUPPILULIUMA (Subbiluliuma) I (1380-1345 BC) taking the throne by disregarding the laws, he went on to become the most powerful commander and successful statesman in Hittite history. During his reign, the Hitttite empire won a place of prominence in the Eastern world. Carchemish, Tunip, Nii, Hamath, Cades, are mentioned among the principal cities of his empire; MITANNI, ARZAPI, and other principalities along the Euphrates acknowledged his sovereignty; and Troad, Cilicia, and Lydia owned his sway. On the death of Shuppiluliama, the throne was taken over by son ARNUWANDA-SH II (1345 BC), but due to his death from plague in the same year, MURSILI-SH II (1345-1315 BC) succeeded to the throne at a young age. This ruler considerably extended the borders of the Hittite state, and when he died of the plague after a reign of thirty years, (30 year plague), he was succeeded by his oldest son, MUWATALLI (Muvattali) II (1315-1275 BC.) He first strengthened the borders of his country, like his father, before beginning preparations for an assault on Egypt. The Hittite Army, comprised of 35,000 infantry and 3,500 battle chariots, marched against Egypt, who retaliated with four army battalions. The two armies clashed at Kadesh and it was after this battle, which ended as a stalemate, that AMURRU was handed back to the Hittites. The war that began in 1286 ended in 1,269 BC with the signing of the first peace treaty ever written in history, known as the Treaty of Kadesh. (Battle of Kadesh, Egyptian Account, 1294 BC. Beginning of victory of King Usermare-Setepnere Ramses II.) The war's architect, Muvattali died in battle and the agreement was signed by HATTUSILI-SH III (1275-1250 BC). Prior to becoming ruler, Hattushilish III succumbed to abuse of his nephew, URHI TESHUP. The territory that Hattushilish controlled was lost; he declared war against his nephew. Hattushilish III won the war and was proclaimed king. At first, the monarch skillfully managed to put his internal and foreign politics in order and the country attained a sense of peace and tranquillity. This climaxed with the Treaty of Kadesh. Two copies were found engraved upon the walls of the Karnak Temple (Egypt) in two different languages, complete with translations of the opposing party's conditions for peace.The daughter of HATTUSHILISH III was wed to Ramses (HITTITE-EGYPTIAN WEDDING). One copy of the treaty was uncovered in the Bogazköy excavations and is presently on display at the Archaeological Museum in Istanbul. When Hattushilish III, a fine soldier and skillful diplomat, finally died, he left behind a peaceful country. His successor was child king TUDHALIYA-SH IV, who reigned over the Hittites together with his mother, Queen PUDU-HEPA (1250 - 1220 BC; treaty between Tudhaliya IV and cousin King KURUNTA of Tarhuntassa.) Queen Puda-Hepa was so highly respected and her name mentioned so often, her seal was stamped everywhere together with that of the king's. Assyrians caused rebellions all along the southern boundary, and Tudhalish IV spent the rest of his life trying to surpress these rebellions. Upon his death, he was succeeded by his son Arnuwandash III (1220-1200 BC). Arnuwandash was succeeded by his brother SHUPPILULIUMA II (1200 - 1190 BC.). However, during the reign of this king, continuous streams of migrant hordes, called "the people of the Aegean" began flowing into Anatolia from Europe. These hordes disrupted the empire, advancing as far as Egypt. These influxes wiped out the Hittite Empire, which had evolved into a highly sophisticated civilization over 600 years in Anatolia. After the collapse of the Hittite State in 1200 BC, their culture continued in Late Hittite city states until the year 650 BC, at centers like Meliddu and Kummuhi near Malatya, and Gurgum, Kargamis, and Samal (Zincirli) near Maras. (SEA PEOPLE INVASION 2; PHRYGIAN IN CENTRAL ANATOLIA, NO RULER LIST 1190 - 840 BC? 250 YEARS? Urartu rulers 840-585 BC. SCYTHIAN INVASION.) HURRIANS took advantage of this situation by setting up the Mitanni state and for almost 100 years, it was the period's second most powerful political entity after Egypt.

Hittites from the time of Rameses III ca 1150 BC had a short head and receding forehead, a prominent and sometimes rather curved nose, a strong jaw and a hairless face. The complexion is yellow, the eyes slightly slanting, with black hair gathered into a long pigtail behind. The great bas-relief found by Koldewey at Babylon, and representing a Hittite thunder-god with a long pigtail and (at the back) a Hittite inscription, is bearded, but the pigtailed heads on other Hittite monuments are usually hairless. Assyrian annals of Tiglath-pileser (Theglathphalasar I) ca 1110 BC, state that towards the end of the 12th c BC, the "land of the Hatti" extended from the Lebanon to the Euphrates and the Black Sea.

An Egyptian records the name of SADI-AMIA; Assyrian annals record Hittite SADI-ANTERU, defeated by Tiglath Pileser at the same time as KILI-ANTERU in Comagene. Overthrow of Khattinians aroused the warlike spirit of Hittite princes; a league formed under the leadership of SANGARA of Carchemish; Hittites, unable to withstand the Assyrian onslaught, were compelled to purchase peace by payment of a heavy tribute (855 BC). This victory opened to the Assyrians the way to Phoenicia and Palestine. Carchemish, however, was still in the hands of the Hittites. A period of decadence for the Assyrian empire followed Shalmaneser's death; during this period mutual relations of the two nations appear to have remained unaltered. SADI-HALIS (from Halys river?) was conquered by Menuas I 800-780 BC, king of Dushpas, in the north Euphrates district (raid of Menuas, against cities of Surisilis and Tarkhigamas, in the territory of HETHITE prince SKADAHALIS.) In 738 BC Tiglath-pileser II mentions a chief of the Gamgums bearing the name TARKU-LARA. In 717 BC, Carchemish fell before Sargon, its king made prisoner, and its wealth and trade passed into the hands of the Assyrian colonists established there by the conqueror. Hittites were driven back to their "original home in the fastnesses of the TAURUS Mts." Hittite names occur in 712 BC (TARCHU-NAZI of Meletene) and in 711 BC (MUTALLIS of Commagene.) In 709 BC Sargon states the king of Ashdod was deposed by "people of the Chatti " who set up Azuri instead. In 673 BC, Esar-haddon speaks of "22 kings of the Chatti and near the sea." Tarku, Tarkhan, in Hittite names parallels Mongol dargo and Turkish tarkhan, "tribal chief." Sil "ruler" Akkadian; naz is an element in Hittite and Kassite (Iranian) names. (Ashkenaz is Cimmerian. Cimmerians in Anatolia 738-640 BC, "ceased to be a threat" under leader SANDA-KHSHATRA. Khsatra is Persian. Scythians at Lake Urmia 679 BC, still invading in 635 BC. Skada is a Scandinavian word, halys "salt.")

National sanctuary of the Hittite Empire, Yazýlýkaya, lies 2 km. north-east of Hattusa (Boðazköy). A natural rock shrine, it contained a magnificent representation of the Hittite pantheon, arranged by ceremonial order of the Hurrian religion. PUDU-HEPA, a princess of Kummanni in Kizuwatna, one of the chief cult centres of the goddess Hepatu. The Egyptian version of the treaty between Hattusili III and Rameses II describes the royal seal appearing on a Hittite silver tablet. The tablet depicts the Queen in the embrace of the Sun Goddess of ARINNA, Hittite counterpart of Hurrian HEPATU. We can find examples of Hittite architecture and sculpture at the Bogazköy site as well as Yazilikaya and Alacahöyük. Other significant works of the Hittites are found at sites such as Gavurkale, Hanyeri, Karabel, Niobe, Sirkeli, Fraktin, Eflatun Pinar and the Tasçi Kaya Monuments. One can also find numerous examples of Hittite ceramic art on display in several museums. Some of more important pieces that have provided us with priceless knowledge about Hittite ceramic handicrafts are bull - shaped pots, spouted jugs, and two vases. One of them (Bitik vase), depicts a marriage ceremony, and the other (Inandik vase), depicts musicians and religious ceremonies.

WESTERN HELLEN, IONIAN, LYCIAN, LYDIAN, PHRYGIAN, TROJAN

The most important center in Western Anatolia was TROY.

The HELEN (Hellas?) settled here 2500 BC. Archeological excavation at Yassikaya, in the Zoroglu Village 24 km away, found remains important to Karadeniz Eregli's and Turkey's history. Hittite tablets mention a people, PALA, who lived in the North-west of Anatolia (see Philistine). CHASKA (Cherkesky, Circassian?) lived in the North ca 1600 BC, and were described as barbarian, eastern, primitive and wild tribes. Chaska were an obstacle for Hittites to move to the Black Sea, never-ending battles ultimately a factor in the destruction of the Hittite Empire. Ancient Greeks talk about HERACLEIA PONTIKE; they mention a people called MERIANDYN, who lived in Karadeniz Eregli in 1200 BC. The name, in the language of Lucia, means "land of the people who stopped the High Ma" (Sea People era.) IONIAN inhabitants of southern Greece were pushed out by invading waves of DORIAN ca 1000 BC. MILESIAN colonists settled the Black Sea coast about 700 BC, and migration from the Aegean coast began. Asia Minor fell to the Persians 6th c BC. After the split of the Roman Empire in the 4th c AD, Pontos became the border of the East Roman or Byzantine Empire. Warriors of Pontos became guardians of Eastern borderlands and the AKRITES (border warriors) became legendary, the most famous Digenis Akritas Basileios, a Byzantine epic hero who died about 788 AD. He was a bold warrior of the Euphrates frontier, son of a Saracen emir converted to Christianity by the daughter of a Byzantine general; he was a proficient warrior by the age of three and spent the rest of his life defending the Byzantine Empire from frontier invaders. In 1204 AD, the Empire of Trebizond was formed with a single eagle as its emblem in deference to the Byzantine double headed eagle of the emperor. Constantinople fell to Ottoman Turks under the leadership of Fatih Sultan Mehmet in 1453. In 1461 Emperor David Comnenos surrendered the Empire of Trebizond to the Sultan and the Ottoman conquest of Asia Minor was complete.

PHRYGIANS arrived in Anatolia in 1200 BC, among the migrating tribes known as the "people of the Aegean Sea". At first they lived in Central Anatolia, building settlements over the ashes of cities of the Hittites such as Hattushash, Alacahöyük, Pazarli and Alisar. (400 year gap, Phrygians in Armenia ca 8th c BC.) King MIDAS, a Phrygian leader, married a Greek woman, united all Phrygians, gained control over vast treasuries, and founded the Phrygian kingdom. He built a city in the center of the country, named Gordion, famous for its giant city walls. Midas, who succeeded to the throne in 738 - 695 BC, defended the eastern and western frontiers of Phrygia quite well, but could not resist the attacks of Cimmerians advancing (738-640 BC) from the Caucasian region. After his defeat by this tribe in 695 BC, it is said that he committed suicide by drinking bull's blood. The largest mound in Gordion was that covering the tomb of King Midas. It is 174 ft high and 984 ft wide. Subsequent to the downfall of Gordion, obliterated by Cimmerian hordes in 676 BC, LYDIANS took control of the Meander plains and Gediz.

LYDIAN (Ludennu, Luwian?) kings unnamed from 1157 BC to Gyges, 652 BC. King list begins with Sea People Invasion. Lydian brothers of Etruscan/Tyrhennian lineage. (See TIRAS) The Lydian State was established in Western Anatolia, with SARDIS as its capital. During the reign of King GYGES, Lydia established trade and good relationships with other states, increasing its own wealth at the same time. Gyges had the famous royal road built from Ephesus, through Sardis to the east. Heredotus wrote the history of the origins of this king in Caria, to which he himself belonged. His story reveals much about the Lydians. Heredotus also recounts the history of the rulers before Gyges, stating that these were of 22 generations, and ruled for a total of 505 years. Lydians lived within a principality in this region for a long time before establishing a state. The reign of Gyges was indeed a remarkable one. Cimmerians, who conquered Phrygia, then attacked the Lydians. King Gyges managed to repulse the first attacks, but during the second onslaught, in 652 BC, he died on the battlefield. The affluent and prospering Lydian towns were plundered and razed to the ground. The son of Gyges, ARDYS (652 - 628 BC?) took his place, who was succeeded by SADYATTES (628-640?), who in turn was succeeded 12 years later by ALYATTES (640-585?) The latter was to restore Lydia to its former glory, and to banish the Cimmerians from Anatolia (ca 640 BC.) He captured cities such as Ephesos and Miletos, and extended the western frontiers as far as the Aegean Sea, and to the east as far as the Kizilirmak (Halys) River and the western border of Persia. Lydians and Persians then commenced a frontier struggle, reaching an agreement in 585 BC. By this time, CROESUS (585-546 BC), the greatest of the hawk kings, was on the throne of Lydia. During his rule, the wealth of the state reached its peak. The treasury was filled with gold, and Lydia minted its own coins for the first time in history whereas trade was steadily increasing the wealth of the state. Lydia's defense was given over to mercenary soldiers. Armies of Persian ruler Cyrus the Great marched into Anatolia and confronted the troops of Lydia on the banks of the Kizilirmak. The Lydian monarch lost the battle, and was forced to retreat to Sardis in order to regroup his forces. Not having estimated that the Persians would pursue them with such speed, they were forced to defend their capital. Persians were ordered to swarm the city walls, and camel - riding Persian soldiers charged the Lydian cavalry. The horses were frightened by the camels, and so the Lydians, deprived of their most powerful defense, retreated into the city. Just two weeks later, Sardis was looted and razed to the ground. Cyrus the Great had Croesus tied to a stake and gave orders for him to be burned. The dynasty of Lydia, the kingdom and all its major cities were razed to the ground in 546 BC, and Persians dominated Central and Eastern Anatolia. Burial mounds called "Bintepeler" (1000 hills) along the shore of the Marmara Lake near Salihli belong to Lydia Kings. It is understood that a mound 226 ft high belonged to King ALYATTES. The Treasure of Karun, at Usak Museum, show us how far Lydian art had advanced.

IONIAN - Twelve IONIAN towns in Western Anatolia got together to form the Ionian Civilization, leading the way to the most brilliant period since the Early Egyptian and Mesopotamian Civilizations. People from Ionian towns of Miletus and Kolophans ventured forth to spread their culture and set up colonies in the Marmara and Black Sea regions. IONIA occupied a narrow coastal strip on the Mediterranean as well as neighboring Aegean Islands, which now mainly belong to Greece. In its favorable position between the civilizations to the west (Greek Aegean) and the east (Lydia, Phrygia), Ionia made an immense contribution to Greek art by supplying much of the Eastern influence in the 7th cent. BC. The region was of considerable importance; it was there that Greek settlers established colonies before 1000 BC. These colonists were called IONIAN, and tradition says that they fled to Asia Minor from the mainland of Greece to escape the invading DORIAN. Athens claimed to be the mother city of all the Ionian colonists, but scholars believe Ionians were actually a mixed group (mainly from Attica and Boeotia); after migrating they were mixed with native groups such as the CARIAN. Nevertheless, they spoke the same distinctive form of Greek spoken in Attica and Euboea, and their culture was always distinguished from that of Dorian and AEOLIAN. There came to be 12 major cities: Miletus, Myus, Priene, Sámos, Ephesus, Colophon, LEBEDOS, Teos, Erythrae, KHíOS, Clazomenae, and Phocaea. A religious league (reached full power 8th cent. BC) was formed, with its center at the temple of Poseidon near Mycale. SMYRNA, originally an Aeolian colony, later joined the league. The fertility of the region and its excellent harbors brought prosperity to the cities. Traders and colonists traveled the Mediterranean as far west as Spain and up to the shores of the Black Sea. (Khíos, Khíos, khôs, Chios, kios - island. Founders of KIEV; brother Khi, sister Lebid. Smyrna founded by Amazons.)

FETHIYE, LYCIA - pka Telmessos, is the most important city of Lycia, at the western border of Caria. Lycian civilization reached from the Dalaman Stream to the region surrounding Antalya. History of the Fethiye begins in the 5th century BC. A Lycian legend explains the source of the name Telmessos: God Apollon fell in love with AGENOR, youngest daughter of the King of Finike (Phoenike), their son's name Telmessos "Land of Lights." The city was handed over to the son of Lysimachos in 240 BC. (Kingdom of Thrace, Tetradrachm of Lysimachos, 323-281 BC.) Fethiye is a pretty town at the base of Mt. Mendos (part of Taurus Mountain chain), and surrounds a bay of the same name. This mountain range (pka Kragos and Antikragos) with an altitude of more than 6560 feet, forms the southwest end of the Toros Mts. Forests consisting of silver fir, Scotch fir, and Norway spruce cover the area. The frankincense tree (Liquidamber Orientalis), source of myrrh, is among the rare species in the world. This plant, in existence since before the ice ages, is cultivated only around Fethiye and Koycegiz. Feature attraction: Lycean rock tombs at Fethiye. Several Lycian towns from 5th c. BC are rock cliffs carved into house - shaped structures, serving as tombs and stone monuments. (See Luwian. PETRA "ruins" in Jordon. Phoenike from Phoenix, Phoenician?) Between 545 - 475 BC (Archaic period), large statues appeared, characterized by the figural Kouros and Kore sculptures, with their frontal poses, one foot slightly ahead of the other, large eyes and furrowed brows. Between 475 - 334 BC (Classic Age), one of the seven wonders of the world was selected, the Artemis Temple in Ephesus, competing with four famous sculptures such as Phidias, Polylet, Kresilas and Phradmon. Around 350 BC, four great artisans, Skopos, Timotheos, Leochares and Bryaxis worked to complete the Bodrum Mausoleum, another of the seven wonders. Praxiteles created a revolution in art by making the naked Knidos Aphrodite. During the Hellenic Age, 334 - 30 BC, Alexander the Great defeated the Persians, blending cultures of west with east ("Alexander proved himself to be an ARGIVE, and was distinctly adjudged a Greek"; Macedonian weds Bactrian.) Pergamum Zeus Altar was constructed in 180 BC to immortalize Eumenes II, who scored a great victory over the GALATIANS. After Alexander's death, widespread lands were shared among his generals and several independent Hellenic Kingdoms were formed, with endless struggles. The Pergamum Kingdom was established, which ruled over a major part of Anatolia for quite a long time.

TURKISH BOSPORUS, a strait that connects the Black Sea to the north with the Sea of Marmara to the south. One of the world's most strategic waterways, the strait separates European Turkey (adjoining Bulgaria & Greece) to the west with Asiatic Turkey (Anatolia, Asia Minor) to the east. Structurally the Bosporus is an inundated valley that follows an irregular northeast-southwest course 19 miles long, with widths varying from 2 miles at its northern mouth to 800 yards at Rumelihasari, midway of the strait. Istanbul (pka Constantinople), one of the great historic cities of the world, sits near the Bosporus entrance to the Sea of Marmara. (At least 1500 years ago, a bridge existed here, mentioned in records of invasions, built by Phoenicians and Egyptians, under Persian Xerxes?.) CRIMEAN BOSPORUS, on the southern shore of Ukraine, at the Sea of Azov.

CILICIA - ancient region on the coast of SE Asia Minor, province of Adana, Turkey. CILICIAN GATES - a mountain pass in the Taurus Mts. of South Turkey, historically linking Anatolia with the Mediterranean coast.

ORENTES (Asi' - Arabic) a corridor between Asia Minor & Egypt; river forms part of border between Lebanon & Syria and Syria & Turkey, runs though Hama city.

CANAAN (modern-day Lebanon pka Phoenicia, southern Syria, Jordan and the West Bank of Israel.)

Canaanites, believed to have their origins on the Arabian peninsula, were original inhabitants of Jerusalem, founded as a permanent settlement ca 3000 BC.Tablets from this time were found in Elba, Syria, on which the god Shalem was venerated in URUKSALEM. URUSHALIM is found on Egyptian statues ca 2500 BC. "URUSHALIM", of Canaanite derivation; "Salem or Shalem" a Phoenician god. Between 2300 - 1900 BC, many coastal Canaanite cities were abandoned, sacked by Amorites, with the inland cities of Allepo and MARI lost to them completely."Mother of Jerusalem a Hittite, father an Amorite" URUSALEM is Amoritic; "Salem or Shalem" an Amorite god. Two oldest rulers of the city, SAZ ANU and YAQIR AMMO were Amorite. Ammorite god MOLECH. 2000 BC, Jerusalem was inhabited by Jebusites, a Canaanite tribe. Jebusites built a fortress, "Zion" meaning "hill or height" in Jerusalem, aka Jebus. Canaanite society flourished for two thousand years, and many aspects of Canaanite culture and religion were later borrowed by Hebrews. ("A Canaanite and his "coat of many colors.") Jerusalem was ruled by MELCHIZEDEK, Jebusite priest-king in the time of Abraham (ca 1900 BC.) The Bible mentions Melchizedek, King of Salem and Priest of the Most High God (El Elion), who offered bread and wine to Abraham. Melchizedek was directly appointed by YHWH. (melchi "king" zedek "righteous"; aka Melchesedec, Melki Sadiq. Philistine Abimelech, Ahimelech, Abi-Milku of Tyre, Milkilu of Gezer; YHWH, husband of goddess Asherah, "lady of the sea."all of them pagans.) Phoenician alphabet, from proto-Canaanite, is introduced, with constanants but no vowels 18th - 17th century BC. Earliest records are from Byblos (Lebanon) 1000 BC. Greek becomes one language branch, Assyrian another, which becomes Aramic 10th - 9th c BC. Hebrew and Mongolian evolves from Aramic. Urushalim figures in Egyptian Texts of Proscription of XII dynasty as 'ws'mm (Urushalim in Akkadian.) (Using the ws=urusha translation, from the first Sea People invasion, WSS would be URUSHESH or RUS, RUSHA. Uru "founded by".)

HYKSOS in treaty with Pharoah Tethomis, leave Lower Egypt ca 1570 BC and found the city of Jerusalem. Historical record shows no mention of Jerusalem for five centuries prior to the 14th Century BC, when Phoenician Canaanite King AB DI HEPA, wrote to Pharaoh Akhnaton and implored him to rid Jerusalem of new invaders. He described a people known as "Habirus" (Hebrews), as having already conquered RUSHADA, and advancing on Jerusalem. (PUDU-HEPA, a HITTITE Queen.) According to the Bible, ca 1200 BC, Israelite Joshua conquered Canaan, murdered Jebusite king ADONI-ZEDEK but failed to drive Jebusites from Jerusalem. (NOTE: son of Adah: Jubal > Jebail > Jebusites? Melchi-Zedek, Adoni-Zedek. Adonai, Adonis - Greek. Adon-Zaphon "Lord of the North" Sa'ad, Ramesis II, 13th c BC. saphon, zaphon "north". "And Abraham called the name of that place Adonai-jireh; as it is said to this day: 'In the mount where HaShem is seen.' ) Temple at Jerusalem built by Phoenician Hiram of Tyre, 10th c BC. In a second attempt to conquer the Jerusalem, ca 1000 BC, David "conquered" the citadel of Zion. ORNAN-ARAUNAH, Jebusite king of Jerusalem, for fifty sheckels, sold David the threshing floor for the purpose of building an altar. The Phoenician Canaanite High-Priest of Jerusalem "permitted" David to build it. Two high priests are referred to in the account of David's life: ABIATHAR and Zadok. Zadok was Canaanite High Priest of Jerusalem, appointed after Saul's mass murder of ruling priests. (Reality check: Northern Bohemia: Brewery Chmelar ZATEC, exporters of Czech beer. Surnames: Zadok, Zadek, Zatek, Sadek, Sadec, Sadech, Sadoc, Szadeczky)

"CANAAN" boundaries were from Sidon to Gaza. Canaanites had many tiny city-states, each at times independent, and at times a vassal of an Egyptian or Hittite king. Hebrews leave Egypt (where they've been for about 400 years) and invade Canaan 1250-1050 BC. David called for all remaining descendants of AARON the High Priest to come forth and fulfill the role of Chief Priests in the new Temple. Aaron had four sons, but Nadab and Abihu died childless. Of his two other sons, Eleazar and Ithamar, David found two remaining descendants that could be certified. They were ZADOK of Eleazar and AHIMELECH of Ithamar. "They have with them their two sons, Ahimaaz, Zadok's son, and Jonathan, Abiathar's son; David found 16 sons of Zadok and 8 sons of Ahimelech - totalling twenty four elders." (Ithamar > Abiathar? ) In the War of the Jews by Flavius Josephus ca 37 -100 AD , he stated: "But he who first built it was a potent man among the Canaanites, and is in our tongue called Melchizedek, the Righteous King, for such he really was; on which account he was there the first priest of God, and first built a temple, and called the city Jerusalem, which was formerly called Salem."

Twelve Chief Canaanite Tribes: Amorites - "highlander". Arkites - Dwelt north of Phoenicia near (Esau's) Caesarea and along the Mediterranea coast west of the Lebanon Mountains. Arvadites - Arvad is a small island off Tortosa, about three miles from Phoenician coast. Canaanites. Girgashites - Driven out of Canaan, it is traditionally held that they fled to Africa. Hamathites. Hittites - Inhabited mountains of Judah near Hebron. Hivites - around Herman and Lebanon. Hivite means "midlander". Jebusites - "Built" and inhabited the city of Jebus. Perizzites. Sinites. Zemarites - Zemaraim is a town four miles north of Jericho. Zemarite means "tyrant, rebel".

MONGOLŲ CHANAI:

Tchingizkhan (Chengischanas)
Birth : est 1160
Death : 1240 river Oneja (Irkutsk)
Parents:
Father: , Ezukai-Baiadur Khan Niutch-jei *

Family:
Children:
, Djutchi Khan *
, Kulkan
Death : 1238
, Djagatai-Tchagatai
Death : 1242
, Tuli
Birth : est 1190
, Ugedei Great-khan
Birth : 1186
Death : 1241

Djutchi Khan*
Birth : est 1190
Death : 1227
Parents:
Father: , Tchingizkhan

Family:
Children:
, Batu Khan of Golden Horde *
, Teival
Birth : est 1209
, Koidal
Birth : est 1210
, Berke Khan 0f Golden Orda
Birth : 1209
Death : 1266
, Yukha-Timur Khna of Sygnak
Birth : est 1210
, Sheibani Khan
Birth : est 1211

Batu Khan of Golden Horde*
Birth : est 1206
Death : 1255
Parents:
Father: , Djutchi Khan *

Family:
Children:
, Sartak Khan of Golden Orde
, Abu
Birth : est 1239
, Tuluk *

Tuluk*
Birth : est 1224
Parents:
Father: , Batu Khan of Golden Horde *

Family:
Children:
, Mengu-Temir Khan of Big Orda *

Mengu-Temir Khan of Big Orda*
Birth : est 1238
Death : 1282
Parents:
Father: , Tuluk *

Family:
Children:
NOGAYA, Anna-Kontchaka *

VANDALŲ KARALIAI:

Gondeguslus (Corisco) King of the Vandals

father:
*Radagaisus the Vandal
died 0405 Italy

mother:
*Cella wife of Radagaisus

siblings:
unknown

spouse:
*Flora wife of Gondeguslus (Corisco)
(end of information)

children:
*Gonderic King of the Vandals
died 0426

Cartographica Neerlandica Background for Ortelius Map No. 155

Title: POLONIÆ,/LITHVANIÆQ./DESCRIPTIO./

Auctore Wenceslao Godreccio; et cor:/rectore Andrea Pograbio Pilsnensi. <= A depiction of Poland and Lithuania by Wenceslav Gorecki, and corrected by Adreas Pograbius of Pilsen> (lower left:) Cum priuilegio/Imp. Regie etc./decennali <= With imperial and royal privilege etc. for ten years>

Plate size: 373 x 487 mm
Scale: 1 : 2,500,000
Identification number: Ort 155 (Meurer:135/IV, not in Karrow, vdKrogtAN: 1900:31B).

Occurrence in Theatrum editions and page number: some 1595L98 (last line, left aligned: bes eius etiam quædam scitu non indigna apud Chalcocondylam 2.), 1598D68 (last line,not in Gothic script like the previous lines, left aligned: Reijn Reyneckius.) 1598F99, 1601L98, 1602S101, 1602G101, 1603L101, 1606E98, 1608/1612I110, 1609/1612S111, 1609L/1612L111, 1641S111.

States: 155.1 as described.
155.2: after 1595L, the name "Tarafoucze" is added to the blank town symbol on the river Prut. Moreover, the double entry of "Tubarcza" on the lower Dnjestr has disappeared. The lower one has been replaced by "Maiak".

Approximate number of copies printed: 3050.

Cartographic sources: Grodecki 1558, 1562, and emendations by Pograbka, mostly on the right half of the plate, compared with plate 154. Grodecki's map itself is based on Wapovsky 1526 (Karrow 56/17, p. 280-281, Meurer p. 159, 216).

Remarks: During or after 1595L this plate replaces Ort 154, which has the title POLONIÆ/finitimarumque.

Text (translated from the 1595 Latin, 1598 Dutch and 1606 English edition)

1. {1595L{The Kingdom of POLAND.

2. Polonia or Poland, so named after its flat plains (which they still vulgarly in their language call Pole), a vast and wide country, in the West borders on Schlesia, on the other sides on Hungaria, Lithuania and Prussia. It is divided into Greater and Lesser <Poland>. Greater Poland is what lies towards the North, and contains the excellent cities Guesna and Posnania. Lesser Poland lies towards the South and contains the famous city of Cracow, situated on the river Vistula, {1606E{(the Germans call it De Wixel, the Poles Drwencza)}1606E}, which runs through the middle of the country.

3. The other cities are not very large or beautiful. Their houses are mostly built of stone, and some are plastered with clay. The country is very marshy, and full of fens and woods. The common drink the people use is Beer. Wine they drink only seldom, and they do not know how to grow and manure grapevines. They are regarded as excellent horsemen for service in war. The soil is fertile, they have many herds of cattle, <and> many deer, game and pastime {not in 1598D{for the Noblemen}not in 1598D}.

4. There is plenty of Honey. Salt is here dug from the earth in great abundance. In the mountains which in their language they call Tatri they have mines of Brass and Brimstone {not in 1606E{but no sulfur}not in 1606E}. Cromerus writes that the Hungarians call the Poles Leugel after Leech, {not in 1598D{the captain or father of the Nation}not in 1598D}.

5. The kingdom of Polonia comprises Lithuania, Samogitia, Masovia, Volhinia, Podolia and Russia, which is called South-Russia, and by some Ruthenia, as also all of Prussia, except for that part which has its own Duke by whom it is governed. Lewenclavius writes that in the year 1570 the king of Poland took the Prince of Moldavia under his protection.

6. The greatest part of LITHUANIA is marshy and full of Bogs, for the most part woody and therefore not easily entered, travelled to or reached. It is better to trade with the Lithuanians in winter than at other times, for since the moors and lakes are <then> covered either with thick ice or deep snow, Merchants may then pass from place to place more easily. In Lithuania there are few towns, and the villages are only sparsely inhabited. The chief wealth of the country people is cattle, and rich furs of various sorts of wild animals, which you find abundantly all over the country. They have plenty of wax and honey.

7. This region breeds the Bison, a kind of animal which they call Suber, the Germans Ur-ochs, such as was to be seen in Antwerp in the year 1570. From here also comes that kind of animal {not in 1598D{which the Romans call Alces, and}not in 1598D} the Dutch Elandt <= elk>. The people speak the Slavonic tongue, as the Poles do as well. Their chief city is Vilna, a Bishop's see, which is as big as Cracow. But the houses in it do not stand closely together nor touch one another, but, like in the countryside, there are gardens and orchards between the houses.

8. All the Oak timber which we call Wagenschott which almost all the carpenters or joiners use who make buildings in the Low countries, public as well as private, as also most of their furniture and household stuff is felled here, and then transported through the East sea {1606E{(the Romans call it Mare balticum, the Dutch Oostsee, the Russians Wareczkovie morie)}1606E} and the German ocean to these countries.

9. In SAMOGITIA (which in their language means Low-land) the people are tall and of excellent stature, but rude and barbarous in their manner and behaviour, using modest and homely food. The Russians call this province Samotz-kasembla. There are no fair buildings here at all, but their houses are like sheds or poor cottages only, made of wood, and covered with straw or reed. From the bottom upwards, their buildings gradually become smaller and smaller, like the keel of a ship, {not in 1598D{or a great helmet}not in 1598D}. In the top it has one window, letting light in from above, under which there is the hearth or chimney where they cook their food. In that house they hide themselves, their wives, children, servants, maids, sheep, cattle, corn and furniture altogether.

10. Sichardus {not in 1598D{in his history of Germany}not in 1598D} writes that the people of Samogitia have descended from the Saxons, and therefore ought to be subject to the kingdom of Polonia, yet, {not in 1598D{although the Saxons deny it to be a part of their jurisdiction, they confirm it to}not in 1598D} belong to the precinct of Saxony.

11. MASOVIA is a shire held in homage by the king of Poland. The chief or Metropolitan city of this province is Warsovia where they make an excellent kind of mead, a drink made of honey &c.

12. VOLHINIA is a region abounding with all kinds of things, a very fertile soil, full of towns and castles.

13. PODOLIA has such a fertile soil that grass in three days will cover a stick that has been cast into it. It is so heavy, and grows so fast that a plough, being left in it on head lands or grassy places of the fields will in just a few days be so covered that you will hardly find it again. Here is also and abundance of honey. Its main city is Camyenetz.

14. RUSSIA yields plenty of Horses, Oxen, and Sheep with very fine wool. Their drink is mead, which they make of honey. Wine is brought here from Pannonia, Moldavia and Walachia. The chief city of this province is Leunpurg, {1598D{which the Romans call Leopolis}1598D}, {1606E{<that is> Lion-city.}1606E}

15. MOLDAVIA is a part of Walachia. Its metropolitan city is {not in 1598D{Sossovia, commonly}not in 1598D} called Sotchen. The inhabitants of this country are a fierce and cruel people, but very good soldiers, and therefore they are continually in animosity with the Transsilvanians. As it was the custom of the Thracians in old times to mark the Noblemen's children with a hot iron, in the same way it is reported that the Lords of Moldavia to this very day mark their children as soon as they are born, with some kind of mark, so that no question need arise whether they are the rightful heirs or not, {not in 1598D{and that strangers may be excluded from inheritance among them}not in 1598D}, as Reinerus Reineckius in his text on noble families has written.

16. {not in 1598D{You can read about many other things in these countries in Mathias of Michow in his discourse on the Sarmates, in Albert Crantzius' description of Wandalia, Bonfinius in his history of Hungary, and Laonicus Chalcondylas in his first and third books. But of all Martinus Cromer in his chronicle of Poland has most excellently described these countries, as has Sigismund of Herberstein in his commentaries of Moschovia. See also Sebastian Munster, {1606E{Pius Secundus, Pope of Rome,}1606E} and David Chytræus in his Chronicle of Saxony.

17. Iohannes Duglossus, a most prolific historian of the Poles, is cited by Ioachimus Cureus, but not yet published, as he states. Georgius of Reichendorff has most elaborately described Moldavia. Laonicus Chalcondylas has also in his second book various things worth knowing about this country.}1595L, not in 1598D}

Bibliographical sources mentioned in this text:

Bonfinius : History of Hungary 155.16
Chalcondylas, : Bk.1 & 3 155.16, Bk.2 155.17
Chytræus, David : Chronicle of Saxony 155.16
Crantz, Albertus : Description of Wandalica 155.16
Cromerus, Martinus 155.4 : Chronicle of Poland 155.16
Cureus, Ioachimus quoting Iohannes Duglossus 155.17
Duglossus, Iohannes quoted by Ioachimus Cureus 155.17
Herberstein, Sigismund of : Commentaries on Moschovia 155.16
Lewenclavius 155.5
Mathias of Michow : Discourse on the Sarmattes 155.16
Münster, Sebastian 155.16
Pius the Second 155.16
Reichendorf, Georgius : Moldavia 155.17
Reinerus Reineckius : On noble families 155.15
Sichardus : History of Germany 155.10

Map No. 156
Title: PRVSSIÆ/REGIONIS SARMATIÆ/EVROPÆ NOBILISS. VE:/RA ET NOVA DESCRIPTIO

/Auctore/Gasparo Hennebergo Erlichensi Pas:/tore Mulhausensi/Priuilegio decennali/1584. <= A true and new depiction of Prussia, the Sarmatian region of Europe, by Gaspar Henneberger of Erlich, Pastor of Muhlhausen, with a privilege for ten years, 1584.> (top right corner cartouche with 16 lines of text, mostly in two columns).

Plate size: 363 x 429 mm
Scale: 1 : 900,000
Identification number: Ort 156 (Koeman/Meurer: 104, Karrow: 1/150, vdKrogtAN: 1720:31B).

Occurrence in Theatrum editions and page number: 1584IIILblank, 1584IIIGblank, 1585IIIF12, 1584L87, 1587F87, 1588S87, 1592L94, some 1595L.

States: 156.1 only.

Approximate number of copies printed: 2100.

Cartographic sources: Caspar Henneberger (1529-1600) who made a large woodcut Prussia map which was published in 1576 (Meurer p. 164-165).

Remarks: Replaced during 1595 by plate Ort 157, which has a ship below the cartouche at the left, whereas this plate has a ship below the cartouche at the right. Also, the late plate's title stops at "Erlichens".

Text (modernised from the 1606 English edition pertaining to Ort 157)

1. PRUSE.

2. Cromer is his description of Poland describes this country in the following manner: Among many other nations of Samartia in Europe, the Borussi are by Ptolemæus placed very far North on that coast where now in my opinion the Livonians and Moscovites dwell, beyond the river Chernish, neighbouring on the Ryphæans. I agree with Erasmus Stella in thinking that these <Prussians> passed further South and West, and took in their possession a great part of Sarmatia, which on the East is bordered by the Russians and Moscovites, and on the South is enclosed by woods and the Hercynian forest, and along that coast by Pautzkerwicke or Frish-haff, <has>, as some think, (Ptolemæus calls it Sinus Venedicus, Plinius <calls it> Clylipenus), the Baltic and East seas, even up to the rivers Vistula (Wixel or Weissel), to be called Borussi or Prussi, names that are not very different <from one another>.

3. In this area now live the Livonians, Lithuanians, Samagites and the Prussians, who still retain their ancient name, nations which are distinguished from each other in the sense that they are subject to various different states and are governed by different laws and policies, but use the same vernacular language, wholly different from the Slavonic ones, yet having various Latin words mixed and intermingled with their own, but mostly corrupted, and with Italian and Spanish word endings rather than Latin ones.

4. The Dutch and Germans have recently conquered that part which lies close to the sea and is called Spruisse and Livonia, and established settlements there. This is the reason why the German language is more familiar and customary to these people than their ancient and vulgar language, especially in cities and towns. This is also usual among the Lithuanians, who because of their being in the neighbourhood of and because of their contacts with the Russians and the settlements supported from there, speak Russian reasonably well.

5. The statement by Duglossus, who derives the name and origin of this nation from Prusias, the king of Bithynia must be considered a mere fable, not worth refuting. Some think that the Borussi where called like that in German because they lived near to the Russi but whether this is true or false I do not want to discuss here. When and how the Latin tongue got mixed up with the vulgar language of the Borussians, Lithuanians and Livonians we do not dare to say for certain.

6. Erasmus Stella says that Borussia (Prussia or Spruse) was assaulted by the Romans, <and then> conquered <by them>, taking Plinius as his source. From which it becomes clear that together with <the spreading of> the Roman Empire the Latin language cannot have spread and rooted here. But Duglossus tells us that in those civil wars between Cæsar and Pompeus a certain group or company of Romans left Italy, their native country, in those troublesome times, settled down on these coasts, and built a city here called ROMOVE after the name of their mother <city of> Rome, which city for a long time was the Metropole of that country.

7. If this opinion of Duglossus is true, we have reason to think (with some reservations, since there may always be a reason to doubt the truth in history), that that group of Romans, lead by some captain named Libo, came to the sea coast near Frisch-haff, towards the East, bordering on the Russians, driven to land there as they were either by tempestuous weather, or, being pursued by the conquerors, to have withdrawn themselves into these quarters for shelter against the raging tyranny of Cæsar's soldiers. And thus the Libones, Livones or Livonians have received their name and way of being called from that Libo.

8. Finally, extending their bounds further and spreading themselves in all directions, some were named Lithuanians by a name derived from the same <Libo>, but much altered and corrupted, while others have still retained their ancient name of Prussi. Yet, also a great part of Pomerland, and Culmischland and the outskirts of Michelaw, after they came under the jurisdiction of Spruse and under the command of the Knights of the Holy Cross (Teutones Crucigeri) began to be called by the one name Spruse.

9. Yet indeed, <only> that part is properly and truly called Spruse which is contained within the rivers Weissel (Vistulo), the Dribentz, the Ossa, the Nemen and the bay Frisch-haff (about which we spoke before) and it is divided from Lithuania and Massovia by thick woods full of Moors and Bogs. So far Cromer. I do not think it amiss also to write down here the ancient division of this country of Spruse into specific shires, as Caspar Henneberg has listed, whose words are the following.

10. VIVIVUTO or, as it is called by some, VIDINITUS, king of Borussia, in the year of Christ 573, when he was 116 years old, before he cast himself into a fire together with his brother as a sacrifice to his Gods, divided his possessions to his sons as follows. He had, as is reported, 12 sons. The first was LITHPO, or as others called him LITALAN, to whom he gave Lithuania the Lower, and made him king and sovereign of the rest, but he was rejected by his brothers because of his murder of CRIBE, a Bishop of them by that name.

11. Among the other eleven he divided the country of Spruse. Of these the first <son>, called ZAMO, obtained that region which after him to this day is called Zambia (Samland) which has on its West and North the salt sea, on the East lake Curisch-haff (Curonensis lacus) and the river Deme, and on the South the river Pregel. It is an accepted view among them that he lived on mount GALTAGARB. The second <son> SUDO got as his portion that part of the country where you now find Oletzo, Stradaun, Lick, part of the precincts or liberties of Iohanisburg, Letzen, Angerburg and Insterburg.

12. It has on its East Lituania, on its South Masovia and Galindia, on its North-West Barthonia (Barthenerland), <and> on its North Schalavonia. This country they called, after his name, Sudavia. This name was utterly lost when this whole area was spoilt and laid waste by the Crucigeri (the knights of the Holy Cross), and therefore the later writers are totally ignorant whether this area was called Sudavia or not.

13. They do think it to have been in Sambia, where there is now a canton called DER SUDAWISCHE WINKEL ODER DER BRUSTER ORT, but they are wrong. For because of their treachery they were driven there by the Crucigeri. The third <son>, NADROO, settled between Sambia, Scalavonia and Barthonia, where there are many rivers, forests and vast wildernesses, called Nadraw (NADRAVIA). In this province you find Tapiaw, Taplaucken, Salaw, Georgenburg &c, strong and defensible castles. The fourth <son>, SCALAVONI, had those places given to him which are on both sides of the river Memel (the old writers call it Cronon), and therefore his portion was called Scalavonia after his own name.

14. The fifth <son>, NATANGO, got that part which he called Natangen. It has on its North side the river Pregel, and on its East Alla. The sixth <son>, BARTHO, enjoyed Barthonia, BARTHENERLAND. It was divided into the Greater and the Lesser, and PLICK BARTHEN, but now those divisions have been forgotten and are no longer used. The seventh <son>, GALINDO, <obtained> that area <extending> from Masovia to the river Alla and lake Spirding, which was named Galindia after him, and which contains many huge deserted areas. A large part of it belongs to the Bishop of Varmia and is now considered to be part of Ermeland.

15. The eighth <son>, VARMONI, received as his portion VARMIA, lying between the countries Galindia, Natangia and Pogesamia. But since he did not continue to live long after his father<'s death>, this province soon lost that name again, and was named by the German name of ERMELAND. The ninth <son>, HOGGO, <received> a Lordship which was separated from Ermeland by the river Passerg <and> from Pomesamia by the river Weseck and lake Drausen. It is now by the Germans called HOCKERLAND, but by the Romans it is called Pogesania after POGIA, his daughter.

16. The tenth <son>, POMEGO, got into the possession of Pomesania, named after him, bounded by the rivers Weissel, Weseck, <and> Ossa or Mocra. The eleventh <son>, CHELMO, received as his portion Culmigeria or Hulmigeria (they call it Colmishland), a province lying between the rivers Weissel, Mockra or Osso and Dreventza, well furnished with castles and cities. Here is another shire worth remembering which they call Sossaw. Also another, called LOBOVIA (Lobaw), belonging to the bishop of Culm. <Then there is> HUNTAW, also a very small province, but well inhabited.

17. There is also an island near Margeburg (or Marienburg), enclosed by a bank or wall <made> by the Crucigeri, the knight<s> of the Holy Cross <to protect it> against inundations and the breaking in of the rivers Weissel and Nogot, and it is called The greater isle GROS WERDER. The Lesser isle DAS KLEINE WERDER, is in Pomerell near Dantzk. Finally, <there is> MARIANA near Marienwerder, an Island by that name, which is not inhabited but reserved for pasture and meadows, yearly yielding a great profit.

18. This author promises a specific Treatise on Prussia with a further discussion on this map. But you may read more about this in Guaginus Veronensis' history of Sarmatia. David Chytræus has also excellently described this place in his Saxon Chronicle.

19. Amber, (the Romans call it Succinum and Electrum, the Germans BERNSTEIN, AGSTEIN <or> AMMEREN) is found plentifully on the coast of this country, but nowhere else in the world, to the great gain and enrichment of this Nation. Various authors have written about the nature and properties of this common stuff, but no one better, in my judgement, than Andreas Aurifaber Vratislaviensis, in a specific publication written in Latin as well as in German.

Bibliographical sources mentioned in this text:

Aurifaber, Andreas of Vratislava : On Amber 156.19
Cæsar 156.7
Chytræus, David : Saxon Chronicle 156.18
Cromer : Description of Poland 156.2, 156.9
Duglossus 156.5, 156.6, 156.7
Guaginus of Verona : History of Sarmatia 156.18
Henneberg, Caspar 156.9
Plinius 156.2, 156.6
Ptolemæus 156.2
Stella, Erasmus 156.2, 156.6

Map No. 158

POME:/RANIÆ,/WANDALI:/CÆ REGIO:/NIS, TYP.

Priuilegio <= A map of Pommern, a part of Wandalica, with privilege> - LIVONI:/Æ NOVA/DESCRIP:/TIO,/Joanne Portantio/auctore <= A new depiction of Livonia by Ioannes Portantius> - DVCATVS OSWIECZENSIS, ET/ZATORIENSIS, DESCRIPTIO Sta(nislav) Por(ebski) pinxit <= A depiction of the Duchy of Auschwitz and Zator, drawn by Stanislav Porebski>

Plate size: 384 x 497 mm; three maps on one plate.

Identification number: Ort 158

Title 158a: Pomeraniae

Scale: 1 : 300,000. Size: 160 x 497 mm.

Identification number: 158a (Koeman/Meurer: 68a, Karrow: 1/102, vdKrogtAN: 2190:31).

States: 158a.1 only.

Cartographic sources: Münster 1550, based on Peter Artopaeus (Karrow 58/170, p. 432, Meurer p. 205).

Title 158b: Livoniae

Scale: 1 : 350,000. Size: 218 x 245 mm.

Identification number: 158b (Koeman/Meurer: 68b, Karrow: 1/103, vdKrogtAN: 1710:31).

States: 158b.1 is followed by 158b.2 and possibly 158b.3 or more, which are difficult to date precisely, mostly concerning changes of placenames, e.g.: Vczul-Vpzul, Trenden-Treyden, Teckaten-Treckaten, WALMER-WOLMER, Buitnick-Bortnick, Rugen-Royen, Karijhaus-Karkhaus, Pardaw-Parnaw.

Cartographic sources: Johannes Portantius, a contemporary of Ortelius who also lived in Antwerp provided information for this map. Possibly, this map goes back to the lost Livonia maps by Marcus Ambrosius and Caspar Henneberger (Meurer p. 218).

158c Oswieczensis

Scale: 1 : 400,000. Size: 218 x 246 mm.

Identification number: Ort 158c (Koeman/Meurer: 68c, Karrow: 1/104, vdKrogtAN: 1940:31).

States: 158c.1 only.

Cartographic sources: Stanislaw Porebski 1563, published by Bertelli in Venice (Meurer p. 217-218).

Occurrence in Theatrum editions and page number: 1573IG44A, 1573IL44A, 1574IF44A, 1573L44A, 1573D44A, 1573G44A, 1574F44A, 1574L59 (large page number), 1575L59 (small page number; last line, centered and italic like the line above it: ad corpus & compagem Poloniæ rediit.Auctor Cromerus in suo Poloniæ Chronico.), 1579L80 (last line, left aligned: Auctor Crometus in suo Poloniæ Chronico.), 1580G80, 1581F80, 1584L88, 1587F88, 1588S88, 1589G80, 1592L95, 1595L100 (last line, left aligned: Cromerus in suo Poloniæ Chronico.), 1598D70 (last line, in Gothic script except for the name, left aligned: ghescheyden hadde geweest. Dit seyt "Cromerus" in zijn Cronijcke van Polen.), 1598F101, 1601L100, 1602S103, 1602G103, 1603L103, 1606E100, 1608/1612I112, 1609/1612S113 (last line, left aligned: al cuerpo y vnion de Polonia: Author d'esto es Cromero en su Coronica de Polonia.), 1609L/1612L113.

Approximate number of copies printed: 6800.

Text (translated from the 1575 Latin, 1579 Latin, 1595 Latin, 1598 Dutch, 1606 English and the 1609 Spanish edition)

1. {1575L{LIVONIA.

2. Livonia, (as Levvenclaius writes) extends itself along the sea for more than 4000 furlongs, and where it is at its narrowest, it is 1300 {1598D has instead{1200}1598D} furlongs broad. The Prussians, Lithuanians and Russians live around it, the remainder is bordered by the Livonian Gulf. Livonia contains the CURONES, ESTHENI <and> LETTI, nations different both in manners and language. In the cities and towns they use the Saxon or German language. The country is full of woods, <and it is> flat and plain without hills and mountains, watered by rivers, mostly lying virgin and unfarmed, in spite of the fact that the soil is good and fertile.

3. For excepting wine and <olive> oil, and some other things which nature provides to some countries that are situated in a more temperate climate (for these <commodities> only are imported), other things necessary for the maintenance of man are here found in such great quantities that they liberally export them to strangers and foreigners. They have great plenty of Fish and Deer.

4. Munster states that the Hares of this country every season change colour, for in winter they are white, and in summer they are grey. From here wax, honey, ash, stone-pitch (pix arida), liquid pitch (the Dutch call it THER,) and that kind of corn which the Romans call Secale, the Germans Rogghe, {1606E{and we Rye}1606E}{1609S has instead{in Spanish Senteno}1609S} is yearly brought to us in great abundance.

5. It has certain cities <which are> very large and finely built. The chief one of them is RIGA, a settlement of the Germans of the Bishopric of Bremen, commodiously situated on the river Duin. It is an excellent Market town, and the Metropolitan of the whole province. RIVALIA {1606E only{(they commonly call it Revel,}1606E only} the Russians Roliva), built by Waldemar, king of Denmark, <is> famous for its excellent harbour on a bay of the Baltic or East sea. This is for trading not less frequented or populous than Riga. DORPATUM {1606E only{(Derpt),}1606E} <lies> close to the Russians, who call it Iuriongorod.

6. The river Becke runs by the walls of this city, very commodious for trade with the Russians. This river is guided through a channel to the sea. It runs so violently with a great fall from steep rocks that it has the same effect on the people close to it, as Lewenclaius says, as the cataracts or falls of the river Nilus has on the Egyptians, who in the course of time gradually turn somewhat deaf and hard of hearing. Next to these cities there are some towns of less importance, fortified with excellent, strong castles. <Then there is> VENDA, {1606E only{Wenden,}1606E} most honourable because the Grand captain or Master of the order keeps his court <here>.

7. It is situated in the middle of the country. Then VELINUM, {1606E only{Welum}1606E} <or> Pernouia on the sea, Wolmer, Veseburgum {1606E only{(I think they call it Yseborg),}1606E} Wittestein, Narua and others. Willichius and Curius think that the Efflui and Limovij once lived in this area. About their form of government {1606E only{and the order in their common-wealth,}1606E} which is subjected to the knights of the order of the Holy Cross, read Ioannes Aubanus, Munster, Lewenclaius, {1595L, not in 1598D& 1609S{Gaguine in his Sarmatica}1595L, not in 1598D & 1609S} and Herberstein, from whom we have taken these details.

8. 1598D{But also Crantzius' sixth book of his Wandalia should be read}1579L only}, with Oderborne's second book on the life of Basilidis, and David Chytræus' Chronicle of Saxony, {not in 1609S{who has written about it with greater diligence than the others}not in 1598D & 1609S}.

9. POMERANIA {1606E only{or POMERLAND}1606E only}.

10. Petrus Artopœus Pomeranus describes this country, his native soil, in Munsters Cosmography thus. POMERANIA, he says, situated on the Baltic sea was by its first inhabitants in their native language, that is in the Wandal tongue, called PAMORZI. It is still under the rule of its first inhabitants, governed by their own princes, and was never subdued or made subject to any foreign jurisdiction. It is everywhere very fertile, well watered by rivers, brooks, lakes, creeks and inlets from the sea. It has many good ports, rich pastures and good corn grounds.

11. It produces plenty of apples, cattle, deer, fish, fowl, corn, butter, cheese, honey, wax and <other> such commodities. It has many {1606E{rich mountains,}1606E} populous cities, towns, castles and villages. There is no void or wasted ground here, except that occupied by lakes or mountains. Before Christianity was adopted here, they spoke the Wandal language, and followed their <own> fashions and manners of life, until they were subdued under the command of the Roman Emperors, for then, together with religion, they adopted the Saxon tongue, which they retain to this day. So far Artopœus.

12. Pomerye in the Wandal language, which is also a Slavonic tongue means nothing but near to the sea or sea coast, as Herberstein says. The dike or sea wall of this country has been so strongly fortified with a sturdy rampart that there is no fear that the sea breaks in to overflow them. The more famous cities on this coast, next to some others that are situated further inland, are Stetin, Neugard, Stargard &c. STETIN was once only a small village, inhabited by a few poor fishermen, but after Christianity had been established here, <and after> Wineta had been utterly destroyed, and the Market was moved to this place, it immediately began to flourish to such an extent that it has now become the Metropolis of the whole country.

13. It is most pleasantly situated on the bank of the river Oder from which it rises up against a hill. It is enclosed by a strong wall and a deep trench. GRYPSWALD is a town in the Dukedom of Wolgast, which others call the Dukedom of Bard. This town was for a long time much afflicted, hindered and impaired by civil wars. But in the year 1456, by establishing a University there, it gradually began to uplift its head. <Then there is> IULINUM, a town once not inferior to the excellent cities {1606E only{of Europe,}1606E only} whether with respect to the wealth of its citizens or its stately buildings.

14. This was once a famous market town of the Wandals. Such a multitude of merchants flocked to this place from Russia, {not in 1606E{Dania,}not in 1606E} Saxony, {1606E has instead{Laussnitz,}1606E} Meisen and all parts of Wandal-land in such groups that in all of Europe, except for Constantinople, there was hardly another market <of such significance> to be found. But it was so shaken by the violent wars of the Danes that it was at last reduced to nothing. Such is the fickleness of inconstant fortune, always delighting in change. Now they call it Wollin. <Then there is> STRALSUND on the sea shore. It had once its own prince, viz. the Duke of Bard.

15. It is a very populous city, much visited by Merchants. WINETA was once also a city of good reputation, now called Archon or Iulinum {1606E{(Wollin)}1606}. For the cities of Wandal-land had various names, according to the diversity of languages of its various nations. That which the Wandalls called Stargard was by the Saxons called Aldenburg, and by the Danes Brannesia, as Crantzius reports. {1595L, not in 1598D{{But I think it worthwhile to mention the description of this country which the singularly learned man M<r>. Peter Edling sent me from Colberg which is this. Pomerland now has forty cities, enclosed by walls and ditches, next to certain excellent castles and monasteries}1595L, not in 1598D}.

16. {1606E{Among which these are the chief ones: Stralsund, Stettin, Grypswald, Stargard, Colberg and Anglame. Five hundred years ago, before the adoption of Christianity, which took place in the year 1124, when they abandoned the Slavonic language, Pomerland was larger, and not much inferior to a kingdom. For Bugslaus the first, brother of Wartislaus the first, son of Swantibore who died as a pagan, when his nephews left the country because of the change in language, joined Pomerel to Spruise. POMERELL, which the Poles now call Casub corner (Cassubia) is no very small province.

17. It extends itself from the borders of Pomerland to the river Wixel or Weissel and contains these cities: Dantzk, Putzka, Dirsow, Stargard, Nauburg, Smecha, Tauchel, Nakel, Hamerstein, Baldeburg, Frideland, Conitz, Schoneg, Slochow &c. which cities for the most part have castles belonging to them. Besides which there are the castles of Mosevantz, Talkenborch, Subitz, Lauterberg and these monasteries: Polpelin, Sukow, Tzernitz and Oliva where the Princes of Pomerell used to be buried, as late as Mestewin, the last one of that line, who died at Dantzk and was buried at Oliva in the year 1295. Read more about Pomerland in the Saxon Chronicle of David Chytraeus.}1606E} This map we have taken from Munsters Cosmography.

18. The Dukedom of OZWIECZIN and ZATOR.

19. This Dukedom is part of the kingdom of Poland where it touches Silesia. Once it did not belong to this kingdom. The territory of OZWIECZIN {1579L, not in 1598D{(the Germans in their language call it AUSCHWITZ)}1579L, not in 1598D} fell to the kings of Poland in the time of Cazimir the third in the year 1454. About 400 years later, ZATOR, during the reign of Sigismund the first, was subjected to the crown of Poland and was united with it in the year of Christ 1548, as Cromerus records in his Chronicle of Poland.}1575L}

Bibliographical sources mentioned in these texts:

Artopœus, Petrus of Pommern, quoted by Münster in his Cosmographey 158.10, 158.11
Aubanus, Ioannis 158.7
Chytræus, David : Chronicle of Saxony 158.8, 158.17
Crantzius Bk.6 of Wandalia 158.8, 158.15
Cromerus : Chronicle of Poland 158.19
Curius 158.7
Edling, Peter from Coldberg 158.15
Gaguine : Sarmatica 158.7
Herberstein 158.7, 158.12
Lewenclaius 158.2, 158.6, 158.7
Münster, Sebastian 158.4, 158.7, 158.17 : quoting Petrus Artopœus of Pommern in Cosmographey 158.10, 158.11
Oderborne : Bk.2 On the life of Basilidis 158.8
Willichius 158.7

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Originalūs Žemėlapiai (Maps) (600 x 800 gif'as trunka ~ 50 sek. vienas):

1. XVI - XVII a. kuriame matyti, kad Lietuva, Rusija, Maskovija (kuri niekada nebuvo Rus'sia) yra trys skirtingos valstybės.

5. Lietuvos - Lenkijos okupavimas ir teritorijos pasidalinimas tarp Rusijos, Prusijos ir Austrijos XVII - XVIII a. (sudaryta XX a.)

9. Dionysius žemelapis 124 m. p. Kr. (A.D) Baltu teritorijoje - Alani, Scythae, Agatlywae(?). Baltijos jura vadinama - Mare Cronium (gal nuo Curones, Chrones) arba Scythicum.

10. Tabula Peutingeriana pr. Kr. sudaryto XIV - XVIa. žemelapio kopija - Baltu gyvenamuose teritorijuose Roxylane - Sarmata. Tanasis - Galatie. Manirate. Saurica. Cannate (Chanatas?). Psaccani. Alani.

Galbūt paskelbsiu žemėlapį sudarytą pagal Plinijų (~ 100 m. po Kr.), kuriame parodytos Estiones, Latovici, Oseriatae ir kitos keistos gentys.

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» Sugrįžti į pradžią

1. Herodotas apie Skitija ir kalbas

2. HUNAI

3. Etrusku kalba:

4. Zemiau rasite apie Asia Minor (Mazoji Azija). Hetitus. IONIAN, LYCIAN, LYDIAN, PHRYGIAN, TROJAN. Caanan. Mongolu chanus. Vandalu karalius. Orteliaus zemelapiu (Ortelius Map No.) Nr. 155 156 158 pilnus aprasymus apie Prusija, Lietuva, Lenkija, Livonija, Vandalija bei kitus kaimyninius regionus.

ASIA MINOR (Mazoji Azija ir jos tautos)

When Hittites and Luwians arrived in Central Anatolia around 2,100 BC after crossing the Caucasian Mountains,

HITTITE - NESIAN HITTITE (called themselves NESIAN)

FOUR KINGS AGAINST FIVE TUDHALISH 1, ca 1750. THADAL, aka Tidal, Tudhalya, Tudhaliya, Thudhula, Tudhalish, sâr mâtâti (Sarmatian?) "king of foreign countries," king of Goiim (Hebr. Gôyîm "nations, confederation.") FYI: kings names are listed with or without suffix "sh."

WESTERN HELLEN, IONIAN, LYCIAN, LYDIAN, PHRYGIAN, TROJAN

MONGOLŲ CHANAI:

Cartographica Neerlandica Background for Ortelius Map No. 155

Title: POLONIÆ,/LITHVANIÆQ./DESCRIPTIO./

Map No. 156
Title: PRVSSIÆ/REGIONIS SARMATIÆ/EVROPÆ NOBILISS. VE:/RA ET NOVA DESCRIPTIO

Map No. 158

POME:/RANIÆ,/WANDALI:/CÆ REGIO:/NIS, TYP.

1. {1575L{LIVONIA.

9. POMERANIA {1606E only{or POMERLAND}1606E only}.

5. http://vm.kemsu.ru/en/skyth/ - skitai ir ju meno pavyzdziai http://www.pitt.edu/~haskins/

6. Getai http://www.trakiatravels.com/en/trakia2.html

7. Karaliai Getu, Heruliu, Germanu ir kitu tautu http://homepages.rootsweb.com/~cousin/html/d0006/g0000646.html

Originalūs Žemėlapiai (Maps) (600 x 800 gif'as trunka ~ 50 sek. vienas):

1. XVI - XVII a. kuriame matyti, kad Lietuva, Rusija, Maskovija (kuri niekada nebuvo Rus'sia) yra trys skirtingos valstybės.

2. Ordinai ir agresija XIII - XV a. (sudaryta XX a.)

3. LDK XIII - XV a. (sudaryta XX a.)

4. LDK XV - XVI a. (sudaryta XXa.)

5. Lietuvos - Lenkijos okupavimas ir teritorijos pasidalinimas tarp Rusijos, Prusijos ir Austrijos XVII - XVIII a. (sudaryta XX a.)

6. Europa pagal Herodota apie IV a. (Baltu žemese - Sigynae, Neuri, Agatamirsi, Androphagi, Melanchlaeni)

7. 10 m po Kr. (A.D.) St. Sever Beatus žemelapis. Baltu žemese - Sarmatai.

8. VI a. pasaulio žemelapis - Baltu žemese pažymeti Sclavini, Sarmatae.

9. Dionysius žemelapis 124 m. p. Kr. (A.D) Baltu teritorijoje - Alani, Scythae, Agatlywae(?). Baltijos jura vadinama - Mare Cronium (gal nuo Curones, Chrones) arba Scythicum.

10. Tabula Peutingeriana pr. Kr. sudaryto XIV - XVIa. žemelapio kopija - Baltu gyvenamuose teritorijuose Roxylane - Sarmata. Tanasis - Galatie. Manirate. Saurica. Cannate (Chanatas?). Psaccani. Alani.

Galbūt paskelbsiu žemėlapį sudarytą pagal Plinijų (~ 100 m. po Kr.), kuriame parodytos Estiones, Latovici, Oseriatae ir kitos keistos gentys.

1. Herodotas apie Skitija ir kalbas

2. HUNAI

3. Etrusku kalba:

4. Zemiau rasite apie Asia Minor (Mazoji Azija). Hetitus. IONIAN, LYCIAN, LYDIAN, PHRYGIAN, TROJAN. Caanan. Mongolu chanus. Vandalu karalius. Orteliaus zemelapiu (Ortelius Map No.) Nr. 155 156 158 pilnus aprasymus apie Prusija, Lietuva, Lenkija, Livonija, Vandalija bei kitus kaimyninius regionus.

ASIA MINOR (Mazoji Azija ir jos tautos)

When Hittites and Luwians arrived in Central Anatolia around 2,100 BC after crossing the Caucasian Mountains,

HITTITE - NESIAN HITTITE (called themselves NESIAN)

FOUR KINGS AGAINST FIVE TUDHALISH 1, ca 1750. THADAL, aka Tidal, Tudhalya, Tudhaliya, Thudhula, Tudhalish, sâr mâtâti (Sarmatian?) "king of foreign countries," king of Goiim (Hebr. Gôyîm "nations, confederation.") FYI: kings names are listed with or without suffix "sh."

WESTERN HELLEN, IONIAN, LYCIAN, LYDIAN, PHRYGIAN, TROJAN

MONGOLŲ CHANAI:

Cartographica Neerlandica Background for Ortelius Map No. 155

Title: POLONIÆ,/LITHVANIÆQ./DESCRIPTIO./

Map No. 156 Title: PRVSSIÆ/REGIONIS SARMATIÆ/EVROPÆ NOBILISS. VE:/RA ET NOVA DESCRIPTIO

Map No. 158

POME:/RANIÆ,/WANDALI:/CÆ REGIO:/NIS, TYP.

1. {1575L{LIVONIA.

9. POMERANIA {1606E only{or POMERLAND}1606E only}.

5. http://vm.kemsu.ru/en/skyth/ - skitai ir ju meno pavyzdziai http://www.pitt.edu/~haskins/

6. Getai http://www.trakiatravels.com/en/trakia2.html

7. Karaliai Getu, Heruliu, Germanu ir kitu tautu http://homepages.rootsweb.com/~cousin/html/d0006/g0000646.html

Originalūs Žemėlapiai (Maps) (600 x 800 gif'as trunka ~ 50 sek. vienas):

1. XVI - XVII a. kuriame matyti, kad Lietuva, Rusija, Maskovija (kuri niekada nebuvo Rus'sia) yra trys skirtingos valstybės.

2. Ordinai ir agresija XIII - XV a. (sudaryta XX a.)

3. LDK XIII - XV a. (sudaryta XX a.)

4. LDK XV - XVI a. (sudaryta XXa.)

5. Lietuvos - Lenkijos okupavimas ir teritorijos pasidalinimas tarp Rusijos, Prusijos ir Austrijos XVII - XVIII a. (sudaryta XX a.)

6. Europa pagal Herodota apie IV a. (Baltu žemese - Sigynae, Neuri, Agatamirsi, Androphagi, Melanchlaeni)

7. 10 m po Kr. (A.D.) St. Sever Beatus žemelapis. Baltu žemese - Sarmatai.

8. VI a. pasaulio žemelapis - Baltu žemese pažymeti Sclavini, Sarmatae.

9. Dionysius žemelapis 124 m. p. Kr. (A.D) Baltu teritorijoje - Alani, Scythae, Agatlywae(?). Baltijos jura vadinama - Mare Cronium (gal nuo Curones, Chrones) arba Scythicum.

10. Tabula Peutingeriana pr. Kr. sudaryto XIV - XVIa. žemelapio kopija - Baltu gyvenamuose teritorijuose Roxylane - Sarmata. Tanasis - Galatie. Manirate. Saurica. Cannate (Chanatas?). Psaccani. Alani.

Galbūt paskelbsiu žemėlapį sudarytą pagal Plinijų (~ 100 m. po Kr.), kuriame parodytos Estiones, Latovici, Oseriatae ir kitos keistos gentys.

Map No. 156
Title: PRVSSIÆ/REGIONIS SARMATIÆ/EVROPÆ NOBILISS. VE:/RA ET NOVA DESCRIPTIO